UC-NRLF 


! 

* 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIFT  OF  THE 

STATE  VITICULTURAL  COMMISSION. 


Accession  No. 


,  January,  1896. 
Class  No. 


U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


PAPERS 

* 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  KINDRED  SUBJECTS, 


BY 


WILLIAM  SAUNDEKS, 

HORTICULTURIST  AND  LANDSCAPE  GARDENER, 
Superintendent  of  Gardens  and  Grounds,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 


REPRINTED  FROM  REPORTS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF 
AGRICULTURE,    1863-1889. 


--••   Of  TBM 

JU7BRSITT 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE, 

1891. 


/ 
3 


1,1 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

Washington,  D.  (7.,  June  5,  1891. 

SIR  :  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  for  republication  a  series 
of  papers  on  horticultural  and  kindred  topics  previously  published  in 
various  Annual  Reports  of  this  Department,  which  are  no  longer  avail- 
able for  distribution.  These  papers  have  been  brought  together,  in 
accordance  with  your  suggestion,  to  afford  a  convenient  means  of  reply- 
ing to  many  requests  for  information  on  these  topics. 

WILLIAM  SAUNDERS, 
Superintendent  of  Gardens  and  Grounds. 
Hon.  J.  M.  EUSK, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Landscape  gardening ,  7 

On  draining  lands 37 

Sowing  seeds  and  raising  yonng  plants  of  forest  trees 38    > 

Making  and  keeping  lawns 40 

Spring  and  fall  planting  of  trees 42 

Keeping  hedges 44 

Cultivation 44, 

Mechanical  preparation  of  soil 46    / 

Mulching 47 

Situations  for  orchards 49 

Orchard  planting 49 

Management  of  orchards 50 

Pruning 51 

Remarks  on  pear  culture 53 

Native  grapes 60 

Grapes — mildew 63 

Propagating  native  grapes 66 

Foreign  grapes  in  glass  structures 67 

Inside  borders  for  graperies 70 

Thripson  grapes 70 

Propagating  by  cuttings 71 

Sowing  seeds 73    / 

Seed  saving 74 

Rotation  in  cropping 75 

Expedients  for  promoting  fruitfulness  in  plants 79 

Importance  of  a  uniform  supply  of  water  in  plant  culture 80 

Liquid  manure  for  plants  in  pot  culture 82 

Flowerpots 83 

Night  temperature  in  glass  structures 83 

Watering  plants  in  pots 85 

Water  plants 86 

Glazing  greenhouse  roofs wvJ^.~.^I^^i^  v 87 

Raspberry  culture 

Figs 

Vanilla 

India-rubber  plants 

Citron 

Special  inquiries  and  answers 

Well-ripened  wood 777777777. Ill 

Notes  on  orange  culture  and  the  pineapple 114 

5 


PAPERS  ON  HORTICULTURAL  AND  KINDRED  SUBJECTS. 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 

Landscape  gardening  is  a  comprehensive  art,  combining  the  genius 
of  the  landscape  painter  with  the  art  of  the  practical  gardener ;  the 
exact  knowledge  of  the  engineer  with  the  poetical  imagination  of  the 
artist.  The  professor  of  this  art  should  also  possess  a  competent  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  principles  of  botany,  architecture,  geology,  hydrau- 
lics, hydrostatics,  mechanics,  laws  of  heat  and  ventilation,  horticulture, 
and  vegetable  physiology.  This  may  seem  rather  a  formidable  array 
of  acquirements,  but  in  the  multifarious  details  of  selecting  and  arrang- 
ing the  style  and  location  of  rural  residences  and  their  accompanying 
domestic  auxiliary  structures ;  the  drainage  of  lands  ;  the  location  and 
construction  of  roads  ;  the  preparation  of  garden  sites  and  the  erection 
of  horticultural  buildings  ;  the  decoration  of  grounds  for  the  purposes 
of  beautifying  the  surroundings  of  rural  homesteads,  the  more  ambitious 
suburban  villas,  and  public  buildings  of  every  description ;  and  th'e 
artistic  disposition  of  arborescent  growths,  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
varied  yet  distinct  beauties  of  which  the  scenery  is  susceptible,  neces- 
sitate a  knowledge  more  or  less  intimate  and  extensive  with  these  as 
well  as  with  other  branches  of  science. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  land- 
scape gardening,  both  in  the  laying  put  of  private  grounds  and  in  the 
design  and  construction  of  public  parks.  Some  of  the  latter  are  de- 
serving of  the  highest  commendation,  both  in  design  and  execution, 
and  have  been  the  means  of  instructing  and  familiarizing  the  public 
with  the  capabilities  and  beauties  of  the  art,  and  in  educating  the  pop- 
ular taste  to  an  appreciation  of  the  development  of  rural  improvements 
and  their  beneficial  effects  upon  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of 
society. 

It  can  not  be  too  forcibly  urged  upon  the  attention  of  those  who  are 
intrusted  with  educational  institutions  that  one  of  the  most  certain 
means  of  encouraging  a  desire  for  studies  in  natural  history,  and  form- 
ing correct  principles  of  taste  in  young  minds,  is  that  of  landscape  em- 
bellishments of  school  houses  and  college  grounds.  This  has  become 
one  of  the  greatest  wants  in  existing  systems  of  education  and  can  not 
long  remain  neglected. 

7 


8 

It  is  not  proposed  to  offer  a  treatise  on  landscape  gardening,  but 
rather  to  allude  briefly  to  some  of  the  more  prominent  points  and  sub- 
jects that  will  naturally  arise  for  consideration  in  the  location  of  resi- 
dences and  public  buildings,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  principal 
accessories  and  the  execution  of  various  details  connected  with  rural 
improvements. 

GARDENING  AND   CIVILIZATION. 

Gardens  are  of  the  most  remote  antiquity.  Our  first  parents  were 
placed  in  a  garden,  and  the  writings  of  the  oldest  historians  and  poets 
contain  various  descriptions  and  traditions  concerning  the  extraordi- 
nary beauty  of  the  gardens.  History  proves  that  a  taste  for  gardening 
has  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  civilization,  and  that  it  has  always 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  passions  and  feelings  of  mankind. 
Much  of  the  decorative  beauty  of  architecture  has  resulted  from  study 
of  the  combinations  and  graceful  lines  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Two 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era  Lydia  was  famed  for  its  gar- 
dens. The  gardens  of  Babylon  are  traditionally  ranked  among  the 
greatest  successful  combinations  of  skill  and  wealth.  The  Persian 
kings  were  very  partial  to  gardens,  which  were  cultivated  as  much  for 
their  beauty  as  for  their  fruit,  and  even  in  gardens  of  limited  extent 
the  trees  were  arranged  in  regular  lines  and  figures,  and  the  walks  bor- 
dered with  tufts  of  roses,  violets,  and  other  odoriferous  plants.  The 
Greeks  copied  from  the  Persians,  both  in  their  gardening  and  their 
architecture.  Epicurus  took  great  delight  in  his  garden,  and  there 
taught  his  philosophy.  The  Greeks  excelled  in  architecture  more  than 
in  gardening,  although  a  public  park  or  garden  was  planted  by  Cimon, 
the  general,  at  Athens,  furnished  with  streams  of  water  and  supplied 
with  shady  groves,  with  gymnasia  and  places  for  exercise.  They  had 
flower  markets  which  were  well  patronized,  and  learned  or  distinguished 
men  wore  crowns  of  flowers,  and  successful  warriors  were  decorated 
with  wreaths  and  garlands.  Their  garden  decorations  partook  largely 
of  statuary  and  other  architectural  appendages. 

The  Romans  devoted  much  of  their  wealth  to  the  adornment  of  their 
gardens  and  pleasure  parks.  Lucullus  seems  to  have  had  large  ideas 
of  magnificent  expenditures  in  this  direction,  being  represented  as  hav- 
ing sumptuous  villas  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  so  that  he  could  enjoy  an 
agreeable  climate  every  month  in  the  year.  Cicero  had  fine  plantations 
at  his  Arpinum  villa.  Sallust,  who  made  a  fortune  in  the  government 
of  Numidia,  devoted  largely  of  his  means  to  the  laying  out  of  gardens 
which  were  for  a  long  period  the  pride  of  Koine.  Pliny's  villa  appears 
to  have  been  laid  out  with  more  taste  and  less  of  ostentations  display 
than  some  others,  since  the  pastoral  beauty  of  his  grounds  is  highly 
praised.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that  the  principal  features  of  orna- 
mentation were  derived  from  vases,  fountains,  and  similar  works  of  art 
that  bore  the  resemblance  of  wealth,  and  were  at  once  objects  that  con- 


veyed  impressions  of  grandeur  and  magnificence,  without  necessitat- 
ing patient  waiting  for  effects  produced  by  artificial  plantations,  which 
require  time  for  their  development  and  a  higher  appreciative  taste  for 
their  enjoyment. 

The  Eoinans  also  devoted  much  attention  to  culinary  vegetation,  and 
carried  their  knowledge  of  science  and  the  arts  into  such  countries  as 
they  colonized,  so  that  a  great  degree  of  wealth  and  enlightened  pros- 
perity accompanied  their  footsteps  to  an  extent  that  the  world  has 
rarely  seen  equaled. 

With  the  reign  of  the  emperors  commenced  the  decline  of  the  empire. 
The  reign  of  barbarism  was  triumphant,  and  the  finest  palaces,  coun- 
try houses,  and  gardens  were  destroyed.  For  five  centuries  the  monks 
were  almost  the  only  class  who  cultivated  gardens  and  kept  alive  the 
culture  of  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers,  and  medicinal  herbs  during  the 
dark  ages.  To  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  preserving  and  handing 
down  of  the  arts  of  gardening  and  architecture. 

It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  the  arts  of 
peace  and  commerce  were  so  prosperous  as  to  awaken  a  love  for  the  fine 
arts ;  and  the  examples  of  former  grandeur  that  still  remained,  together 
with  traditions  of  ancient  magnificence,  stirred  up  a  desire  of  imita- 
tion, and  Italian  gardening  attained  a  perfection  and  standing  that  are 
still  recognized  and  distinguished  among  rural  improvements. 

STYLES  OF  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 

There  are  two  very  distinct  modes  of  laying  out  grounds,  known  as 
the  geometrical  and  the  natural.  Various  terms  have  been  used  from 
time  to  time  by  descriptive  writers  on  these  subjects  to  designate  styles, 
but  they  are  all  easily  referred  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  modes. 
Under  the  geometrical  may  be  placed  the  formal,  Eomau,  architectural, 
and  ancient,  as  well  as  the  Italian,  French,  and  Dutch  varieties  of  this 
style,  tinder  the  natural  we  may,  in  a  similar  manner,  place  the  gar- 
denesque,  modern,  irregular,  English,  and  graceful. 

A  third  style  is  commonly  included,  but  has  never  been  very  suc- 
cessfully defined,  either  practically  or  hypothetically ;  that  is,  the  pic- 
turesque. The  former  two  are  sufficiently  comprehensive  for  the  pres- 
ent purpose. 

THE  GEOMETRICAL   STYLE. 

In  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world  the  possessor  of  wealth  exhibited 
his  riches  by  surrounding  his  residence  with  such  improvements  as  were 
most  distinctive  from  the  common  scenery  of  the  country.  Hence  gar- 
dens were  ornamented  with  ballustraded  terraces  of  massive  masonry, 
magnificent  flights  of  steps,  elaborately  decorated  arcades,  costly  foun- 
tains, architectural  grottoes,  and  lofty,  clipped  hedges  arranged  with 
niches  and  recesses  for  the  display  of  statuary.  His  less  wealthy 
neighbor  contented  himself  by  substituting  a  sloped  grass  bank  for  the 


10 

stone  terrace,  shaped  his  small  lake  in  a  square  or  circular  form,  and 
clipped  his  trees  and  shrubs  into  fantastic  shapes,  aiming  at  ostentation 
without  regard  either  to  propriety  or  good  taste. 

Such  a  style  is  well  fitted  for  immediately  producing  startling  if  not 
grand  effects;  and  during  early  stages  of  society,  and  in  countries 
abounding  with  the  irregular  and  natural  forms  of  uncultivated  scenery, 
distinction  is  at  once  imparted  by  introducing  perfectly  level  or  regu- 
larly sloping  surfaces  of  ground,  trees  planted  at  uniform  distances 
apart,  and  lakes  or  ponds  bounded  by  geometrical  lines,  so  as  to  leave 
no  chance  of  mistaking  any  portion  of  the  scene  as  having  been  the  re- 
sult of  unassisted  arrangement,  but  unmistakably  conveying  the  impres- 
sion of  a  display  of  wealth  and  refinement,  and  to  indicate  ownership 
by  distinguishing  the  country  residence  from  the  natural,  uninclosed, 
rude  scenery  of  the  neighborhood. 

In  the  strictly  geometrical  style  everything  is  architecturally  accu- 
rate in  its  lines,  perfect  symmetry  pervades  the  whole,  and  all  parts 
are  equally  balanced.  Statuary  of  all  kinds,  fountains,  steps,  ballus- 
ters,  and  pediments,  broad  walks,  straight-planted  avenues,  formal- 
shaped  flower  beds,  all  belong  to  this  species  of  garden  and  landscape 
decoration. 

THE  NATURAL   STYLE. 

In  the  geometrical  style  the  hand  of  the  artist  is  evident  in  every 
detail ;  but  in  the  natural  style  artificial  interference  is  not  so  conspic- 
uously apparent.  In  the  disposition  of  the  material  used  for  the  devel- 
opment of  landscape  views  and  scenic  effects  there  is  nothing,  so  far  as 
general  impressions  are  concerned,  to  indicate  where  the  hand  of  the 
improver  has  been  operating,  or  anything  appearing  beyond  a  natural 
production,  or  what  may  be  indigenous  to  the  locality.  All  natural 
beauties  are  carefully  preserved  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  objects  of 
use  or  convenience,  and  the  element  of  utility  enters  more  largely,  per- 
haps, into  our  ideas  of  the  beautiful  in  this  than  in  the  geometrical 
style ;  and  while  there  is  no  desire  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  art  in 
operative  details,  it  is  not  rendered  obtrusive,  and  the  effects  produced 
need  not  suggest%the  idea  of  painful  and  laborious  operations. 

The  perception  of  the  beauty  ought  to  be  the  first  impression,  and  not 
that  of  the  art  by  which  it  has  been  produced.  The  beauties  of  nature 
are  imitated  in  the  disposition  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and,  so  far  as  gen- 
eral scenic  effect  is  concerned,  the  arrangement  might  be  taken  for  a 
natural  group ;  yet  a  close  examination  of  details  will  lead  to  the  dis- 
covery that  the  plants  employed  are  not  indigenous  to  the  locality, 
and  thus  art  and  design  will  be  recognized.  So  also  in  a  district  where 
evergreen  trees  do  not  exist  in  the  surrounding  natural  woods  their  in- 
troduction in  the  scenery  will  at  once  convey  the  impression  of  an  arti- 
ficial plantation,  so  far  as  regards  the  materials  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. While  therefore  the  general  effects  produced  in  this  style  are 


11 

similar  to  those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  natural  scenery,  the  de- 
tails are  dictated  by  convenience,  utility,  and  adaptibility  to  the  end 
in  view. 

A  neglected  footpath  seen  in  the  distance,  curving  gracefully  around 
the  sides  of  a  hill  or  on  the  banks  of  a  stream,  now  embracing  a  thicket 
of  trees  and  undergrowth,  and  lost  in  a  maze  of  tangled  vines,  then 
emerging  and  tracing  across  the  meadow,  alternately  widening  and 
narrowing,  and  at  times  altogether  lost  in  the  massive  foliage  of  grasses 
and  other  natural  growths,  is  what  might  truly  be  termed  a  natural 
path.  Let  it  be  trimmed  and  widened,  however,  its  surface  neatly  ad- 
justed and  covered  with  gravel,  its  curves  well  defined,  and  its  sides 
made  perfectly  parallel,  and  it  will  have  lost  much  of  its  beauty  as  a 
natural  woodland  path,  although  the  contiguous  scenery  has  not  been 
disturbed  nor  in  any  degree  impaired.  It  is  now  invested  with  the 
beauty  of  utility,  and  however  much  we  may  have  admired  it  in  its 
original  condition,  yet  for  comfort  as  a  dry  and  convenient  walk  we 
greatly  prefer  its  improved  condition ;  and  in  addition  to  the  charms 
associated  with  its  position,  it  has  those  of  adaptability  and  fitness  to 
the  end  in  view. 

CHOOSING  A  LOCATION  FOB  BUILDINGS  AND   GROUNDS. 

In  choosing  a  location  one  of  the  first  considerations  is  that  of  access 
to  and  egress  from  a  city,  and  if  daily  intercourse  is  contemplated,  it 
becomes  a  question  of  special  interest.  The  time,  trouble,  and  expense 
of  travel  on  bad  roads  are  a  severe  tax  upon  country  pleasures.  A 
drive  of  half  an  hour  on  a  hard  road  during  a  fine  summer  evening  is 
a  recreative  pleasure  which  may  not  be  appreciated  when  an  hour  and 
a  half  are  spent  on  the  same  distance  during  a  stormy  winter  morning, 
A  good  road  in  dry  weather  may  become  very  indifferent  after  rains, 
and  be  impassable  for  three-fourths  of  the  year. 

In  these  days  of  railroads  and  steamboats  it  is  difficult  to  indicate 
what  might  be  considered  a  convenient  distance  from  the  city.  Upon 
a  well-managed  railroad  a  distance  of  20  miles  may  be  more  accessible 
than  2  miles  upon  a  common  road.  Proximity  to  a  railroad  station  will 
always  secure  a  certainty  of  convenient  transit,  even, allowing  the  dis- 
tance to  be  within  an  easy  carriage  drive.  This  facility  should  not  be 
overlooked  when  it  can  be  secured. 

Healthiness  of  locality  is  of  paramount  importance.  Low,  flat  lands 
are  generally  damp  and  cold,  and  should  never  be  selected  for  the  habi- 
tation of  man  or  beast,  if  there  is  any  choice  in  the  matter.  Valleys, 
or  even  depressions,  are  equally  unsuitable.  The  air  after  sunset  is 
always  dense  in  such  places,  dews  are  heavier  and  more  frequent,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  frosts  are  more  prevalent  than  on  elevations.  Fogs 
are  more  frequent  on  low  lands.  The  extremes  of  temperature  are  also 
greater,  especially  if  surrounded  by  forests,  which  prevent  the  free 
circulation  and  equalizing  influence  of  winds.  Wide  and  long  valleys, 


12 

between  uniform  hills  are  frequently  subjected  to  sweeping  blasts. 
Even  the  vicinity  of  such  localities  ought  to  be  avoided.  A  person  may 
drain,  cultivate,  and  otherwise  improve  his  property,  and  still  be  sub- 
jected to  the  injurious  influences  of  unimproved  lauds  over  which  he  has 
no  control. 

An  elevated  situation  is  generally  healthy.  The  extent  of  prospect 
it  secures  is  also  an  advantage;  yet  it  is  not  well  to  place  too  great  a 
value  on  distant  views.  For  permanent  residence  the  exposure  of  ele- 
vation is  a  disadvantage.  Though  cool,  airy,  and  agreeable  in  summer, 
they  may  be  bleak,  chilly,  and  exceedingly  uncomfortable  during  win- 
ter. The  tender  and  delicate  varieties  of  flowers  and  shrubbery,  as 
well  as  fruits  and  culinary  products,  are  less  likely  to  flourish  when 
fully  exposed  to  cold  and  unbroken  winds. 

SELECTING  A  BUILDING  SITE. 

This  is  too  commonly  settled  by  selecting  the  highest  point  of  the 
ground,  but  not  always  wisely.  A  modern  house  set  up  on  a  sharp 
knoll  has  an  isolated  appearance  which  is  not  readily  altered  or  im- 
proved by  trees,  and  it  is  with  difficulty  approached  by  roads,  if  the 
grounds  slope  suddenly  from  it. 

A  somewhat  level  plateau,  partially  surrounded  by  higher  ground, 
forms  a  good  position  for  a  dwelling  house.  The  ground  should  fall 
from  it  in  all  directions,  more  rapidly  in  front  than  back,  where  the 
descent  may  be  merely  sufficient  for  drainage.  Back  of  the  house, 
positions  should  be  selected  for  the  vegetable  garden,  stables,  and  other 
buildings,  such  as  greenhouses  and  graperies,  all  of  which  will  be  shel- 
tered and  protected  by  the  higher  ground  beyond. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  should  receive  attention  in  selecting  a  spot  for 
a  house.  Clay  soils  are  retentive  of  water,  and,  even  when  artificially 
drained,  the  surface  is  disagreeable  after  rains.  Clay,  in  contact  with 
foundation  walls,  keeps  them  damp  and  cold.  The  expansion  of  clay 
when  wet,  and  shrinkage  when  dry,  unfit  it  for  a  safe  foundation.  If 
every  other  condition  is  secured  in  a  site,  art  can  do  much  towards 
ameliorating  the  physical  qualities  of  the  soil ;  but,  for  all  the  purposes 
of  human  comfort  and  enjoyment,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  house, 
a  light,  open,  porous  soil  is  decidedly  the  best. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  secure  the  beauty  and  utility  of  a  natural 
plantation;  but  to  select  the  site  for  a  mansion  in  the  center  of  a  grove 
of  old  trees,  with  the  intention  of  making  them  a  nucleus  for  future 
landscape  effect,  will  generally  prove  unsatisfactory.  In  natural  forests 
the  trees  grow  too  closely  together ;  their  trunks  are  long,  slender,  and 
destitute  of  branches;  and  if  thinning  is  attempted,  those  that  are  left 
seldom  flourish  for  any  length  of  time.  If  the  thinning  out  is  gradual, 
and  the  best  of  the  remaining  trees  are  judiciously  pruned,  they  may 
ultimately  recover  and  make  a  satisfactory  appearance. 


13 

Where  old  trees  abound  it  is  difficult  to  prepare  or  keep  a  good  lawn 
or  introduce  new  sbrubs  or  flowers.  The  roots  of  the  trees  prevent 
thorough  renovation  of  the  soil  and  the  shade  of  their  branches  inter- 
feres with  the  growth  of  plants.  There  is  a  steady  antagonism  between 
the  old  and  the  new,  both  with  regard  to  individual  growth  and  laud- 
scape  effect,  until  either  the  one  or  the  other  predominates.  It  is  no 
matter  of  doubt  or  uncertainty,  but  a  settled  question  with  all  who  have 
any  experience  in  remodeling  or  adapting  old  woods  or  groves  to  modern 
improvements,  that  it  is  measurably  better  to  commence  on  a  treeless, 
naked  field  ;  as  a  judicious  selection  and  intermixture  of  fast-growing 
trees,  properly  planted  in  good  soil,  will  in  a  few  years  serve  all  useful 
purposes,  produce  such  effects  as  are  contemplated,  and  give  far  more 
satisfaction  than  can  be  derived  from  the  accidental  position  and  growth 
of  natural  forests,  at  least  so  far  as  relates  to  improvements  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  a  rural  residence. 

PLAN  OF  IMPROVEMENTS. 

The  grounds  being  secured  and  the  site  fixed  upon  for  the  house,  the 
next  step  is  to  prepare  a  well-defined  working  plan  for  contemplated 
improvements,  and  this  is  of  equal  importance  whether  the  grounds 
are  extensive  or  quite  limited.  To  strike  out  the  rude  and  simple  out- 
lines of  an  arrangement  for  the  various  accessories  and  conveniences 
of  a  country  residence  requires  a  mind  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
principles  of  taste  and  conversant  with  the  application  of  art  to  the 
development  of  beauty  ;  and,  although  we  admit  that  every  individual 
best  knows  what  will  meet  his  ideas  of  comfort  and  convenience  in  the 
abstract,  there  are  few  who  can  tell  all  the  details  or  satisfactorily  in- 
troduce and  fit  all  the  disjointed  parts  so  as  to  produce  a  complete 
whole. 

As  it  is  wisdom  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  about  building  a  house 
to  enlist  the  services  of  a  competent  architect,  so  it  is  essential  to  con- 
sult with  a  landscape  artist  in  the  preparation  of  a  plan  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  grounds ;  as  to  what  trees  to  plant  and  where  to  plant 
them ;  the  proper  introduction  and  construction  of  roads  and  walks ; 
locating  and  erecting  barns,  stables,  glass  houses,  and  other  buildings; 
selecting  and  preparing  the  soil  for  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens;  making 
lawns,  and  the  numerous  details  that  are  involved  in  perfecting  all  the 
indispensable,  useful,  and  ornamental  adjuncts  to  a  suburban  house  and 
grounds. 

All  plans  should  be  definite  and  simple  as  possible,  and  not  over- 
loaded with  mechanical  embellishments,  as  an  excess  in  this  respect 
generally  indicates  a  deficiency  in  more  important  particulars.  They 
should  be  accompanied  with  ample  references,  wnere  each  tree  and  the 
most  important  shrubs  should  be  distinctly  named  and  referred  to 
numbers  on  the  plan.  Intelligible  reasons  should  be  given  for  every- 
thing proposed,  both  with  reference  to  immediate  and  to  future  effect, 


14 

with  clear  instructions  and  suggestions  with  regard  to  the  operations 
proposed,  and  the  relative  order  in  which  they  should  be  conducted. 
It  may  be  taken  as  a  rule  that  no  proprietor  should  undertake  improve- 
ments until  he  sees  clearly  the  objects  and  intentions  of  the  design  or 
plan  ;  and  if  this  information  can  not  be  conveyed  by  inspection  and 
explanation,  it  is  a  strong  presumptive  evidence  of  defect  either  in  the 
design  or  in  the  explanation,  or  in  both. 

in  transferring  designs  to  the  ground,  the  most  correct  and  speedy 
method  is  to  divide  the  plan  into  squares  by  lines  drawn  on  it  in  both 
directions,  the  side  of  the  square  being  of  any  length  that  will  best 
serve  the  purposes  of  accuracy.  Squares  of  60  feet  for  the  side  will 
be  found  a  convenient  length  ;  but  in  intricate  designs,  such  as  those 
for  flower  gardens,  squares  of  30  feet,  or  even  shorter,  may  be  nec- 
essary. The  ground,  or  space  to  be  operated  upon,  is  to  be  divided 
into  squares  of  the  same  size,  and  a  stake  set  firmly  at  each  point  of 
intersection  of  the  lines,  and  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  num- 
bers on  the  plan.  A  still  more  distinctive  method  is  to  use  numbers 
for  one  direction  and  letters  for  the  other;  each  stake  will  then  be 
marked  with  a  number  and  a  letter.  The  plan  and  grounds  being  thus 
prepared,  the  placing  of  a  tree,  or  the  laying  down  of  a  walk,  or  any 
other  object,  can  be  executed  with  the  greatest  facility.  It  also  ena- 
bles the  work  to  be  commenced  at  any  point,  and  a  short  practice  will 
enable  any  one,  by  looking  at  its  position  in  the  square  on  the  plan,  to 
place  a  tree  in  its  relative  position  in  the  square  on  the  ground,  with- 
out having  recourse  to  exact  measurements.  A  plan  carefully  prepared 
with  references,  and  accurate  to  a  scale,  may  thus  be  transferred  to  the 
ground  by  any  person  capable  of  reading  letters  and  figures. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   OUTBUILDINGS,   STABLES,  ETC. 

The  selection  of  sites  for  the  various  buildings  required  near  a  coun- 
try or  suburban  residence  is  second  in  importance  only  to  the  selection 
of  a  site  for  the  mansion.  Convenience  dictates  that  these  buildings 
should  be  as  near  the  house  as  is  practically  consistent  with  their  ob- 
jects and  character.  The  dwelling  house  will,  of  course,  occupy  the  best 
and  most  advantageous  position,  and  its  superior  size  and  style  of  arch- 
itecture will  always  be  such  as  to  render  all  other  necessary  structures 
of  secondary  and  subordinate  appearance.  Such  buildings  as  stables 
and  icehouses  are  so  obviously  necessary  to  domestic  comfort  that  their 
presence  is  not  only  expected,  but  their  absence  conveys  an  impression 
of  poverty  or  incompleteness  altogether  inconsistant  with  our  ideas  of 
what  a  country  home  should  be. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  endeavoring  to  entirely  conceal  these  structures 
by  plantations  and  other  expedients,  as  is  frequently  advised,  they 
should  be  located  on  the  most  eligible  sites,  and  display  in  their  archi- 
tectural details  and  ornaments  an  expression  of  the  purposes  for  which 


15 

they  are  intended,  and  be  judiciously  exposed  to  view  without  rendering 
conspicuous  the  operations  necessarily  connected  with  the  structure. 

The  best  location  for  these  buildings  will  be  governed  to  some  extent 
by  local  circumstances;  but,  where  there  are  no  grades,  views,  or  other 
exceptional  features  to  interfere  with  the  selection,  a  point  in  a  north- 
east direction  from  the  house  will  combine  the  greatest  number  of  ad- 
vantages. •, 

While  the  stables  and  other  farm  buildings  should  not  be  entirely 
hidden  from  view  at  certain  points,  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  obvious 
that  a  due  amount  of  privacy  in  and  about  the  buildings  themselves,  as 
well  as  in  the  line  of  view  from  the  dwelling  house,  will  be  essential, 
and  can  readily  be  effected  by  the  int  roduction  of  trees  and  shrubs  at 
the  points  indicated. 

LAYING  OUT  ROADS  AND  WALKS. 

The  guiding  principle  in  designing  the  position  of  roads  and  walks  is 
utility.  Nature  forms  no  roads.  They  are  works  of  men  and  animals, 
and  would  undoubtedly  always  proceed  in  straight  lines  from  point  to 
point  if  obstructions  of  various  kinds  did  not  interfere  and  cause  devia- 
tions. Necessity  will  therefore  suggest  where  and  how  they  should  be 
introduced.  So  far  as  regards  approaches  and  walks  to  and  from  build- 
ings, the  object  of  their  introduction  is  sufficiently  apparent;  but,  in 
laying  out  pleasure  grounds  and  lawn  fronts,  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
introduce  walks  for  the  mere  purpose  of  variety.  This  is  a  very  ques- 
tionable reason  at  the  best,  and  not  always  successfully  accomplished ; 
but  even  in  cases  of  this  kind  they  should  appear  to  aim  for  some  defi- 
nite object,  or  lead  to  points  of  sufficient  importance  to  suggest  their 
utility. 

Unnecessary  roads  and  walks  should  be  carefully  avoided.  They  are 
expensive  in  their  construction,  if  properly  made,  and  require  constant 
attention  to  keep  them  clean  and  in  repair.  Nothing  looks  so  woebegone 
and  poverty-stricken  as  a  weedy,  neglected  road  to  a  house,  or  walks 
through  pleasure-grounds  or  garden.  They  detract  much  from  the 
beauty  of  the  surroundings,  no  matter  how  elaborate  or  intrinsically 
worthy  they  may  be.  An  oversupply  of  roads  and  walks  is  always  a 
serious  infliction. 

The  beauty  of  curved  lines  sometimes  prompts  to  a  deviation  from 
the  more  available  direct  course ;  and,  where  it  can  be  done  without 
too  great  sacrifice  of  utility,  it  is  not  objectionable.  '  But  no  walk  should 
be  turned  from  its  obvious  direct  course  without  an  apparently  suffi- 
cient reason.  A  change  of  level  in  the  grounds,  a  tree^  or  a  group  of 
plants  or  other  similar  obstruction  will  induce,  and  seemingly  demand, 
a  change  of  line. 

There  are  many  locations  where  the  straight  line  should  be  preferred 
as  a  matter  of  taste  in  design.  As  a  connecting  link  between  the 
strictly  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  of  a  building,  and  the  irreg- 


16 

ular  surfaces  surrounding  it,  a  perfect^  straight  walk  is  m  the  best 
taste  and  adds  greatly  to  the  effect  of  the  architecture,  while  a  fre- 
quently curving  walk  detracts  from  it.  So  also  a  walk  along  the  side 
of  a  straight  boundary  fence  should  not  curve  if  both  lines  are  visible 
at  the  same  time.  Most  persons  are  aware  of  the  great  beauty  of 
straight  walks  and  avenues  of  trees ;  and  for  public  parks  of  lesser 
order,  inclosed  by  formal  outlines,  they  can  always  be  introduced  with 
great  effect,  as  well  as  convenience,  where  curving  walks  would  be  the 
reverse.  In  this  case  beauty  depends  upon  harmo  ny  rather  than  con 
trast,  and  more  than  either  upon  utility. 

When  roads  or  walks  are  carried  over  irregular  surfaces  the  natural 
turns  and  windings  necessary  to  follow  an  easy  or  uniform  grade  and 
keep  as  near  the  original  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible  will  usually 
develop  pleasing  curves.  A  little  studied  attention  in  this  matter  of 
the  course  of  a  road  will  not  only  increase  the  beauty  of  curves  by  add- 
ing to  them  the  grace  of  utility,  but  also  deep  and  expensive  cuttings, 
as  well  as  heavy  embankments,  will  be  avoided,  and  easy  grades  and 
economical  construction  be  more  certainly  secured. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  branch  a  second  road  from  the  main  line  it 
should  leave  the  latter  at  as  nearly  a  right  angle  as  convenient,  and  at 
the  same  time  be  somewhat  narrower,  so  that  its  appearance  may  con- 
vey the  proper  idea  of  it  being  subordinate,  and  to  avoid  confusion  and 
mistake;  otherwise  the  roads  leading  to  the  stable,  ice  house,  or  gar- 
den may  be  mistaken  for  the  road  to  the  mansion.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  walks  be  made  conspicuous  in  views  of  natural  scenery. 
If  it  is  essentially  necessary  that  a  walk  should  cross  a  lawn  where  it 
would  interrupt  a  continuity  of  view  and  destroy  breadth  of  effect  it 
should  be  sunk  beneath  the  line  of  vision  by  placing  it  in  a  slight  ex- 
cavation, which  may  be  further  assisted  by  throwing  up  a  small  mound 
on  the  side  nearest  the  point  of  view.  These  expedients,  as  also  that 
of  planting  thick  groups  of  low-growing  shrubs,  will  be  effective  and 
satisfactory  if  properly  executed. 

In  laying  out  curving  roads  it  is  not  advisable  to  closely  follow  geo- 
metrical rules,  or  to  set  the  curves  out  to  any  regular  radius.  This 
plan  may  occasionally  prove  perfectly  satisfactory  on  a  strictly  level 
surface,  but  it  will  have  quite  an  opposite  effect  where  the  ground  is 
greatly  undulating.  The  curves,  to  be  pleasing,  must  be  "  eye-sweet n — 
not  too  sudden  or  abrupt — and  properly  blended  at  their  points  of 
j  unction. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROADS  AND  WALKS. 

Yery  much  of  personal  comfort  and  pleasure  in  rural  residences 
depends  upon  good  roads.  A  smooth,  firm,  dry  road  is  one  of  the  great- 
est conveniences  and  enjoyments,  while  a  rough,  soft,  muddy  road  is 
one  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  and  annoyances  of  country  life.  Bad- 
roads  form  the  greatest  obstacles  to  progress  and  permanent  improve- 


17 

ments  in  all  the  neighborhoods  that  are  blasted  with  their  presence ; 
they  have  a  demoralising  effect  upon  the  inhabitants,  and  are  a  sure 
sign  either  of  poverty  or  mismanagement,  or  both. 

Water  is  the  worst  enemy  to  good  roads.  It  is  therefore  a  leading 
principle  in  road-making  so  to  construct  them  that  they  may  be  kept 
dry.  In  absence  of  a  timely  recognition  of  this  principle  many  costly 
roads  have  proved  to  be  failures  ;  but  wherejt  has  had  prominent  rec- 
ognition and  its  value  has  been  properly  appreciated  good  roads  have 
been  made  at  a  trifling  expense. 

After  locating  the  road  and  marking  out  its  course,  the  sides  should 
be  brought  to  the  proper  grade  and  finished  by  a  layer  of  sod  as  a  guide 
to  further  operations.  In  crossing  a  sloping  surface  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  have  both  sides  perfectly  level,  but  the  nearer  this  can  be  se- 
cured, with  due  regard  to  getting  rid  of  surface  water,  the  better  it 
will  admit  of  a  neat  finish  and  the  more  easily  will  it  be  kept  in  repair. 

The  roadbed  is  then  formed  by  excavating  and  removing  the  soil  to 
a  depth  of  6  inches  at  the  sides,  curving  slightly  higher  in  the  cen- 
ter, and  made  perfectly  smooth  by  rolling,  producing  a  uniform  surface 
upon  which  the  material  of  the  road  is  to  be  placed. 

The  best  stone  for  road  metal  is  tough  granite.  Hard,  brittle  stone 
is  more  readily  reduced  by  pressure,  but  in  a  well-kept  road  this  differ- 
ence is  not  important.  It  is,  however,  all  important  that  the  stones 
should  be  broken  small.  The  largest  should  pass  easily  through  a  2- 
inch  ring,  and  if  one-half  of  them  are  small  enough  to  pass  through  a 
ring  of  only  1  inch  diameter  the  road  will  ultimately  become  all  the 
more  compact. 

The  road  should  be  filled  with  this  broken  stone  to  a  level  with  the 
sides,  increasing  in  depth  towards  the  center  at  the  rate  of  1  inch  to 
the  yard.  Thus  a  road  16  feet  in  width  would  have  a  depth  of  about 
9  inches  in  the  center.  The  utmost  care  should  be  applied  to  regulating 
the  surface,  and  the  smaller  stones  should  be  used  on  top,  in  order  to 
secure  an  even,  compact,  carefully  molded  grade,  which  should  be  com- 
pressed by  repeatedly  passing  a  heavy  roller  over  it,  wedging  every 
stone  and  making  the  surface  almost  as  smooth  and  solid  as  a  pavement. 
A  thin  layer,  not  more  than  1  inch  in  thickness,  of  fine  clayey  gravel 
should  then  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  stones  and  the  roller  again 
applied  until  the  surface  becomes  homogeneous,  firm,  and  close. 

The  surface  of  the  road  will  thus  be  higher  than  the  sodded  edgings ; 
water  will  therefore  pass  readily  from  it,  and  one  of  the  main  points  of 
keeping  a  good  road  will  be  secured. 

This  will  form  a  first-class  road  for  ordinary  carriage  drives,  or  for 
all  purposes  required  in  public  parks  or  private  grounds ;  and  if  kept  in 
good  surface  by  frequent  rolling,  so  as  to  prevent  the  forming  of  ruts 
while  it  is  settling,  and  if  a  facing  of  gravel  is  applied  when  necessary, 
it  will  permanently  fulfill  all  requirements  of  a  good  road. 

The  quality  of  the  gravel  deserves  notice.  Wash  gravel,  consisting 
28581 2 


18 

only  of  sand  and  rounded  pebbles,  should  never  be  used.  No  amount 
of  pressure  will  render  it  firm,  and  it  is  the  most  disagreeable  material 
to  walk  upon.  The  best  gravel  is  that  to  be  found  in  banks  composed 
of  pebbles  mixed  with  reddish  clay,  and  the  stones  must  be  small.  No 
detail  in  road-making  is  of  so  much  importance  as  this.  If  a  wagon 
wheel  or  the  foot  of  a  horse  press  on  one  extremity  of  a  stone  the  other 
end  of  it  will  probably  be  slightly  raised,  allowing  small  particles  of 
sand  to  fall  into  the  crevice  when  the  stone  is  loosened,  and  will  roll 
on  the  surface ;  hence  the  necessity  of  using  only  very  finely  divided 
stones  on  top,  so  that  they  will  be  smaller  than  the  pressing  point,  and 
not  become  deranged  from  leverage  or  compound  action. 

Where  stone  can  not  be  conveniently  obtained  the  roadbed  may  be 
filled  with  refuse  matters  of  many  kinds,  such  as  coal  ashes,  clinkers 
from  furnaces,  and  shells.  Oyster  shells  are  plentiful  in  many  places 
near  the  seaboard,  and  form  an  admirable  road ;  but  the  permanency 
as  well  as  the  efficiency  of  these  materials  in  a  roadbed  will  depend  al- 
together upon  the  care  of  surfacing  with  proper  gravel.  Where  it  is 
impracticable  to  procure  or  deemed  inexpedient  to  use  any  of  the  fore- 
going materials,  an  earth  road  may  be  rendered  very  serviceable  by 
proper  attention  to  the  leading  principle ;  that  is,  to  keep  it  dry.  In 
this  case,  instead  of  excavating  the  road  bed,  slight  excavations  should 
be  made  at  the  sides  and  the  material  spread  over  the  center :  and  that 
surface  water  may  pass  to  the  sides  more  rapidly  and  thoroughly  a 
greater  convexity  may  be  given  to  the  curve.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  good  roads  are  kept  up  in  this  manner,  but  they  are  carefully 
repaired  whenever  necessary,  and  all  ruts  and  tracks  are  filled  up  as  soon 
as  they  are  formed.  The  same  general  principles  apply  to  the  formation 
of  walks  and  footpaths.  The  depth  of  material,  however,  need  not  ex- 
ceed a  few  inches.  It  is  certain  that  much  unnecessary  expense  is  fre- 
quently laid  out  upon  mere  foot-paths.  A  porous,  gravelly,  or  sandy 
soil  is  in  itself  a  good  walk  if  properly  shaped.  Such  walks  admit  of 
greater  convexity  than  carriage  roads,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  saving 
of  material.  Walks  should  be  well  filled  up.  There  is  no  more  dis- 
agreeable object,  or  one  that  conveys  so  meager  an  expression,  as  deep, 
raw  edgings  to  a  walk,  looking  as  if  they  had  been  trimmed  with  a 
plow.  Walks  in  this  condition  may  be  serviceable  as  water  courses, 
but  they  are  not  comfortable  footpaths. 

FORMATION  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAWNS. 

A  fine  lawn  is  the  most  beautiful  of  external  ornaments.  Soft,  vel- 
vety, elastic  turf,  smoothly  shorn  and  of  fine  color,  is  always  pleasing, 
but  not  always  attained.  Formerly  the  emerald  lawns  of  European 
pleasure  grounds  were  considered  to  be  unequaled,  and  it  was  thought 
that  nothing  approaching  to  their  beauty  could  be  realized  in  this 
climate  of  scorching  sun  and  summer  droughts;  but  it  has  been  demon- 
strated beyond  any  doubt  that  lawns  may  be  produced  and 
$  gne  ®$  those  U>  be  fouu4  \u  any  country, 


19 

The  primary  requisite  is  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil.  Without 
this  failure  is  probable ;  but  if  properly  done  at  the  outset,  success  is 
certain,  with  subsequent  intelligent  management.  First  of  all  a  good 
foundation  must  be  laid  by  draining  and  subsoiling,  trenching,  manur- 
ing, or  otherwise  loosening  and  enriching  the  soil.  With  limited  lawns 
spade-trenching  will  be  at  once  thorough  and  permanent ;  but  where  a 
plow  and  other  implements  can  be  used,  the  work  may  be  executed 
much  more  economically,  and  by  using  the  subsoil  plow  in  connection 
with  the  common  surface-turning,  a  depth  of  18  inches  will  be  reached, 
which  on  ordinary  good  corn-producing  lands  will  be  ample  prepara- 
tion for  a  good  lawn.  Previous  to  the  final  plowing  a  heavy  dressing 
of  manure  should  be  applied.  This  should  be  well  decomposed,  more 
especially  if  the  soil  is  partially  of  a  gravelly  or  sandy  character. 

The  surface  must  be  rendered  smooth  and  regular.  Careful  plowing 
can  accomplish  much  towards  making  a  smooth  surface ;  but  whatever 
the  expense  may  be,  the  finish  should  be  made  perfect  before  sowing 
the  grasses.  There  are  two  seasons  for  sowing — autumn  and  spring — 
either  of  them  appropriate ;  and  the  choice  will  depend  upon  circum- 
stances, and  is  of  secondary  consideration  compared  to  the  preparation 
of  the  land.  To  get  rid  of  weeds  and  clean  the  ground  before  laying 
it  down  in  grass  it  is  a  commendable  practice  to  plant  it  with  early 
potatoes.  These,  if  cultivated  with  ordinary  care,  will  soon  cover  the 
surface  with  their  leaves,  and  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds :  and  the 
operation  of  digging  up  the  crop  and  removing  it  tends  to  pulverize 
and  loosen  the  soil.  The  potatoes  can  be  removed  and  grass  seed  sown 
by  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of  September,  and  the  grasses 
will  vegetate  and  cover  the  surface  before  frosts.  A  top  dressing  of 
thinly  sprinkled  manure  will  protect  the  young  plants  during  the  win- 
ter, and  a  good  thick-set  lawn  will  be  secured  early  in  the  following 
summer. 

In  hard,  clayey  loams,  where  a  sufficiently  comminuted  surface  is  not 
so  easily  obtained,  the  ground  should  be  prepared  in  the  latter  portion 
of  the  year  and  plowed  over,  so  as  to  leave  a  rough  surface  to  be  acted 
upon  by  frost  during  the  winter.  This  will  insure  a  friability  not  easily 
attainable  by  mechanical  means  on  tenacious  soils.  The  seeds  should 
be  sown  as  early  as  can  be  done  in  the  spring,  but  not  until  the  ground 
is  dry.  Working  a  clayey  soil  when  it  is  wet  is  ruinous  to  the  future 
crop. 

In  the  immediate  preparation  of  the  ground  before  seeding  the  sur- 
face should  be  pulverized  by  the  harrow  and  roller  if  necessary.  The 
seed  will  be  sufficiently  covered  by  passing  a  light  harrow  or  roller  over 
the  ground.  The  former  is  best  in  clayey  or  baking  soils,  and  the  roller 
on  light  and  sandy  soils. 

The  best  grasses  for  permanent  lawns  are  red  top  (Agrostis  vulgaris) 
and  June  grass  (Poa  pratensis.)  The  following  proportions  have  been 
used  in  the  lawns  of  this  Department  with  great  satisfaction :  One 
red  top,  2  bushels  June  grass,  1  quart  timothy  to  each  acre  of 


20 

land.  These  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  before  sowing.  This  is  heavy 
seeding,  but  experiments  demonstrate  that  a  good  lawn  can  only  be 
secured  by  heavy  seeding  when  sown  in  the  spring;  autumn  sowing 
may  be  thinner,  but  the  thick  seeding  will  be  most  satisfactory.  There 
is  no  grass  equal  to  the  June  grass  for  fine  lawns ;  this  is  also  known 
as  green  grass  and  Kentucky  blue  grass.  The  red  top  also  forms  a 
good  swajd  where  the  soil  is  good  and  the  summers  comparatively  cool 
and  moist ;  but  during  dry  warm  weather  it  becomes  hard  and  wiry. 
The  timothy  grass  vegetates  quickly  and  greatly  assists  the  growth  of 
the  others. 

The  practice  of  sowing  oats,  barley,  or  other  grains  with  the  grasses, 
under  the  impression  that  they  will  protect  the  young  plants  from  the 
sun  and  drought,  is  altogether  wrong,  as  it  practically  does  much  more 
harm  than  good.  The  larger  growing  plants  rob  the  soil  of  its  moisture, 
to  the  destruction  of  the  tender  and  more  feebly  rooting  grass  plants. 
No  such  protection  is  necessary  even  were  it  possible  to  supply  it  with- 
out injury.  With  fair  preparation  of  ground,  the  seed  put  in  as  soon  as 
practicable  in  the  spring,  the  lawn  will  be  fit  to  mow  in  June  at  latest. 

A  very  successful  improver,  especially  in  the  making  of  lawns,  sows 
down  in  August  and  adds  about  2  pounds  of  turnip  seed  to  the  acre. 
The  gradual  growth  of  the  turnip  foliage  forms  a  congenial  damp  shade 
for  the  vegetation  and  spread  of  the  young  grass  plants.  The  larger 
leaves  of  the  vegetable  also  protect  the  grass  against  injury  from  the 
early  frosts.  Their  gradual  decay  and  ultimate  removal  are  effected 
before  the  grasses  are  so  far  advanced  as  to  be  hurt  by  continuous 
shade,  and  a  thick  sward  is  secured  before  winter.  A  slight  covering 
of  strawy  manure  will  be  of  advantage  to  autumn-sown  lawns,  particu- 
larly so  if  the  soil  inclines  to  be  wet,  and  therefore  liable  to  have  the 
young  plants  thrown  to  the  surface  by  the  alternate  action  of  freezing 
and  thawing.  A  heavy  roller  should  be  passed  over  it  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  firmness  of  the  soil  will  admit,  in  order  to  tighten  the 
earth  around  the  roots,  and  press  down  such  plants  as  have  been  loos- 
ened during  the  winter. 

While  it  is  true  that  a  fine  lawn  can  not  be  produced  without  good 
preparation,  it  is  equally  true  that  a  fine  lawn  can  not  be  maintained 
without  frequent  mowing.  The  recent  improvements  in  lawn-mowers 
leave  but  little  to  be  desired  so  far  as  mowing  facilities  are  concerned. 
They  also  roll  the  lawn  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  cut,  which  is  essential 
to  the  most  perfect  keeping.  That  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  a 
formidable  operation  is  now  one  of  the  easiest,  and  the  lawn  is  kept  in 
good  order  at  less  cost  than  any  other  portion  of  the  pleasure  grounds. 
One  of  the  best  points  in  the  lawn-mower  is  its  incapacity  for  cutting 
long  grass,  thus  compelling  frequent  mowing,  which  is  the  great  secret 
in  keeping  a  superior  lawn.  Mow  early  and  often  is  the  rule.  Even 
on  newly  seeded  lawns  the  mower  should  be  at  work  as  soon  as  the 
grass  is  high  enough  to  cutj  indeed,  much  injury  results  from  procras- 


21 

tination  at  this  time ;  weeds  will  gain  the  ascendency,  and  unequal 
growths  follow.  A  lawu  sown  down  in  April  was  cut  six  times  before 
the  first  of  August,  and  had  the  appearance  of  a  thick-set  sod. 

Neither  in  the  preparation  and  formation  of  a  lawn,  nor  in  its  keep- 
ing in  this  climate,  are  there  any  half-way  compromises.  The  work 
must  be  done  thoroughly  to  begin  with,  and  then  timely  attention  to 
cutting  all  through  the  growing  season  will  insure  a  satisfactory  result. 
Neither  soil  nor  climate  can  justly  be  blamed  for  poor  lawns,  although 
it  is  a  very  convenient  mode  of  shifting  responsibility,  and  one  fre- 
quently adopted. 

As  already  remarked,  lawn  mowing  machines  will  not  operate  to  any 
good  purpose  where  the  grass  is  long  ;  hence  it  has  been  recommended 
to  leave  the  cut  grass  as  a  mulch.  During  the  first  year  this  course 
may  be  followed  with  advantage ;  but  experience  shows  that  a  long 
continuance  of  the  practice  injures  the  lawn  materially,  particularly 
during  early  spring  or  late  in  the  season.  In  the  hottest  portion 
of  summer  the  cut  grass  dries  up  so  thoroughly  as  to  be  but  of  slight 
influence  either  way. 

The  lawn  will  be  benefitted  by  a  top  dressing  once  in  three  or  four 
years;  not,  however,  by  throwing  over  it  an  unsightly  covering  of 
rough,  strawy  litter,  which,  however  beneficial,  is  not  commendable  in 
neatly  kept  grounds.  A  compost  made  up  of  fresh  stable  manure  and 
any  ordinary  good  surface  soil,  thrown  together  in  layers,  and  inter- 
mixed and  pulverized  by  frequent  turnings  during  the  summer,  will  be 
in  condition  for  application  any  time  in  early  winter.  This  should  be 
evenly  distributed,  broken  up,  and  raked  in  among  the  roots,  taking 
advantage  of  frost  to  assist  in  the  work  of  disintegration,  and  removing 
the  rougher  portions  altogether  before  rolling  the  lawn  in  the  spring. 

BELTS  OR  MARGINAL  PLANTATIONS. 

In  suburban  districts,  where  surrounding  properties  are  likely  to  be 
improved  and  the  scenery  is  liable  to  be  changed  at  any  time,  too  much 
value  should  not  be  given  to  neighboring  views.  It  frequently  occurs 
that  the  site  for  a  dwelling  house  is  selected  mainly  on  account  of  its 
commanding  certain  distant  views,  even  to  sacrificing  other  important 
considerations  in  order  to  secure  the  prospect,  and  before  the  house  is 
completed  the  fine  views  are  obstructed  by  operations  on  an  adjoining 
property.  In  localities  of  this  kind  the  interest  of  the  position  should 
not  so  much  depend  upon  external  beauties  that  are  beyond  control  as 
upon  the  internal  improvements  and  local  objects.  Preliminary  to  this 
acquirement  the  grounds  should  be  isolated  by  an  umbrageous  boundary 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  which  will  form  a  pleasant  margin  to  the  ground 
improvements,  and  provide  that  seclusion,  retirement,  and  privacy  which 
are  always  congenial  to  home  comfort. 

Whether  the  place  is  large  or  small,  a  carefully  planted  boundary  of 
selected  trees  and  shrubs  should  encircle  that  portion  of  the  grounds 

V 
•cril 


22 

appropriated  to  gardening  purposes.  With  regard  to  small  places  in 
thickly  populated  neighborhoods  this  should  be  the  first  consideration. 
The  place  will  thus  be  made  to  look  larger  and  the  house  can  be  partly 
surrounded  by  a  somewhat  open  lawn,  which  will  be  distinctly  defined 
and  fringed  by  the  border  of  shrubs.  In  grounds  of  greater  extent 
shelter  and  protection,  both  to  plants  and  animals,  will  be  largely  se- 
cured by  thickly  set  evergreen  trees  on  the  most  exposed  quarters. 
Distinctiveness  of  arrangement  will  also  necessitate  the  formation  of  a 
well-marked  division  between  the  garden,  the  lawn,  and  the  open  fields 
beyond,  and  here  a  continuous  belting  of  foliage  will  serve  to  render 
the  boundary  line  more  pleasing  if  not  less  conspicuous. 

Much  of  the  efficiency  as  well  as  the  beauty  of  this  boundary  belt 
will  depend  upon  the  form  of  its  ground  plan,  as  well  as  upon  its  sky 
outline,  which  is  a  curving  line,  widening  and  narrowing  at  certain 
points,  as  heavy  masses  of  planting  may  be  made  to  hide  deformities 
or  openings  left  through  which  to  view  the  distant  scenery.  In  arrang- 
ing openings  it  is  not  necessary  to  arrest  the  continuous  line  of  shrub- 
bery. This  can  be  maintained  by  using  very  low  growing  plants  oppo- 
site to  the  selected  openings.  This  will  further  have  the  effect  of 
varying  the  sky  outline  both  by  elevation  and  perspective.  The  pro- 
jecting points  giving  space  for  larger  growing  plants,  will  enhance  va- 
riety in  sky  outline.  These  occasional  masses  of  heavier  plantings 
produce  a  pleasing  variety  of  effect  when  contrasted  with  open  spaces 
of  lawn  and  groups  of  low-growing  shrubbery. 

The  selection  of  the  species  and  varieties,  as  well  as  the  disposition 
of  plants  in  a  marginal  border,  requires  skill  and  forethought.  The 
proper  gradation  of  heights,  the  contrasting  and  harmonizing  of  forms 
and  colorings  of  foliage  and  flowers,  and  the  general  adaptation  of  the 
whole  to  the  extent  of  grounds  and  to  the  requirements  of  the  archi- 
tectural and  other  improvements,  will  influence,  to  a  certain  degree, 
both  the  selection  and  disposition  of  the  plants. 

Where  the  grounds  are  so  extensive  as  to  admit  of  a  plantation  belt, 
varying  in  width  from  50  to  200  feet,  thus  affording  space  for  the  growth 
of  the  largest  trees,  the  selection  of  sorts  will  be  less  difficult  than 
where  the  space  limits  the  border  to  a  maximum  breadth  of  50  feet. 
The  following  list  includes  some  of  the  best  trees  of  the  smallest  size, 
suitable  to  small  grounds: 

Acer  campestre.  Laburnum  vulgare. 

Acer  Pennsylvanicum.  Madura  aurantiaca. 
Amelanchier  Canadensis,  var.  ~botryapium.        Magnolia  conspicua. 

Aralia  spinosa.  Magnolia  glauca. 

Carpinua  betulus.  Paliurus  aculeatus. 

Cercis  Canadensis.  Prunus  mahaleb. 

Chionanthus  Virginica.  Prunus  padus. 

Cornus  florida.  Ptelea  trifoliata. 

Elcoagnus  angustifolia.  Pyrus  aucuparia. 

Fraxinus  viridis.  Pyrus  coronaria. 

Halcsia  tetraptera.  Shephcrdia  argentea. 

Hamamelis  Virginica.  Sophora  Japonica. 
Kcelreuteria  paniculata. 


23 


FENCES  AND  HEDGES. 

Some  sort  of  fence  is  usually  necessary  to  guard  against  intruders,  or 
to  designate  ownership,  and  the  kind  of  fence  used  will  generally  be 
governed  by  necessity. 

Whichever  material  may  be  used  for  outside  fences,  they  should  be 
strong  and  substantial.  Inside  fences  for  ^uch  purposes  as  that  of  sep- 
arating the  lawn  from  the  vegetable  garden  may  be  of  lighter  construc- 
tion, especially  if  a  fence  crosses  a  lawn,  as  seen  from  the  house  with  an 
open  view  beyond,  it  should  be  as  light  and  elegant  as  is  consistent  with 
strength  and  durability.  In  such  cases  it  is  often  desired  to  conceal 
the  fence  as  an  intrusive  object  in  the  landscape  by  adopting  the  sunken 
fence.  This  may  be  described  as  a  ditch-like  excavation  4  or  5  feet  in 
depth,  finished  by  a  perpendicular  wall  on  the  lawn  side  and  the  ground 
flatly  sloped  on  the  opposite. 

The  propriety  of  persistently  concealing  the  fence  in  such  positions 
may  be  questioned.  Utility  is  a  strong  element  of  the  beautiful,  and  if 
no  visible  barrier  intervenes  between  the  pleasure  ground  and  a  grazing 
field  we  at  once  condemn  the  incongruity.  We  can  not  distinguish 
where  the  flower  garden  ends  or  the  grazing  meadow  begins,  and  must 
suppose  that  the  cattle  can  perambulate  the  flower  garden  if  they 
choose;  we  can  imagine  the  result,  and  we  feel  that  a  fence  becomes  a 
necessity  to  separate  objects  that  can  not  be  united  without  injury  to 
one  or  both.  Wire  fences  are  well  adapted  to  this  purpose,  as  they  are 
so  light  as  not  materially  to  interrupt  the  view,  and  if  properly  con- 
structed are  sufficiently  strong  and  permanent. 

Even  in  those  happy  communities  where  cattle  are  not  permitted  to 
run  at  large  some  kind  of  fence  will  be  necessary  to  designate  boundary 
lines  of  property.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  highest  degree  of  rural 
beauty  is  a  village  without  fences  or  any  other  distinctive  marks  to 
properties.  As  well  might  it  be  claimed  that  the  best  arrangement  in  a 
picture  gallery  will  be  produced  by  taking  the  paintings  out  of  the 
frames  and  nailing  the  canvas  to  the  walls.  The  love  of  exclusive 
possession  is  the  mainstay  of  society.  Well-defined  boundary  lines  to 
property  greatly  enhance  its  enjoyment,  especially  when  applied  to 
lawns  and  gardens. 

For  this  purpose  the  live  fence  is  by  far  the  most  appropriate,  and 
that  formed  of  evergreen  plants  the  most  permanently  beautiful. 
The  Siberian  arbor  vitae,  Nootka  cypress,  and  hemlock  spruce  are 
among  the  best  for  northern  climates.  In  the  South  the  Chinese  arbor 
vitse,  Japan  euonynius.  and  other  evergreen  shrubs  may  be  added  to 
the  list.  If  deciduous  plants  are  preferred,  a  selection  may  be  made 
from  the  following  list:  Japan  quince,  buckthorn,  elseagnns,  Japan 
privet;  and,  if  a  somewhat  formidable  fence  is  desired,  the  Osage 
orange  and  honey  locust  will  answer  that  purpose. 

Hedges  are  also  useful  as  shelter  to  gardens,  rendering  them  earlier, 


24 

more  productive,  and  greatly  exempt  from  casual! ties  of  climate  and 
locality.  In  the  growth  of  all  kind  ot  small  fruits  as  well  as  those  of 
larger  orchard  growth,  shelter  is  always  of  the  greatest  benefit.  Many 
of  the  diseases  of  our  fruit  trees  and  imperfections  in  tbe  products 
can  be  effaced  by  sheltering  hedges  and  plantations,  facts  that  are  now 
being  fully  appreciated  by  fruit-growers. 

In  grounds  of  very  limited  dimensions,  where  the  boundary  lines  are 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  house,  an  evergreen  hedge  set  inside  the 
fence  will  afford  great  relief  to  the  eye  and  form  a  background,  as  it 
were,  to  the  shrubbery  and  flower  borders.  The  stiff  line  of  the  hedge 
can  be  modified  in  appearance  by  planting  small  diversified  groups  of 
shrubs  or  low-growing  evergreens  along  its  front.  A  continuous  border 
varying  in  width  and  curving  outline,  running  a  direction  parallel  with 
the  hedge,  and  thickly  planted  with  flowering  shrubs  of  variety,  inter- 
spersed with  such  flowering  herbaceous  perennials  as  hollyhocks, 
phloxes,  chrysanthemums,  delphiuums,  etc.,  is  one  of  the  best  modes 
of  treating  a  small  pleasure  garden  and  lawn. 

ROCKERIES. 

A  rockery  properly  located  and  tastefully  arranged  is  capable  of 
affording  much  of  interest  and  pleasure  to  those  who  can  appreciate 
the  beauties  of  nature.  It  is  not  advised  to  attempt  the  imitation  of 
rocky  scenery,  which  can  rarely  be  successfully  accomplished,  even  with 
the  command  of  unlimited  means.  Abortions  of  this  kind,  where  the 
means  have  been  made  more  conspicuous  than  the  end,  have  tended  to 
discard  rockeries  from  situations  where  they  would  be  highly  prized, 
were  their  real  purpose  fully  understood. 

The  simplest  form  of  rockwork  may  be  described  as  a  mound  of  soil 
covered  with  stones ;  and  its  purpose  that  of  securing  conditions  for 
culture  of  the  native  plants  of  our  woods  and  dells,  as  mosses,  ferns, 
and  others  of  similar  habits,  which  will  not  flourish  in  the  ordinary 
borders  or  bed.s  of  the  flower  garden,  where  they  are  too  much  exposed 
to  sultry  suns  and  drying  winds. 

A  secluded  spot  or  corner  of  the  pleasure  grounds  shaded  by  trees, 
but  not  directly  under  them,  is  the  position  for  a  rockwork  of  the  kind 
in  question.  Here,  concealed  from  all  points  by  an  inclosure  of  shrub- 
bery, or  by  an  evergreen  hedge,  and  approached  by  a  rustic  pathway 
through  a  leafy  thicket,  the  rockery  may  be  located,  without  any  vio- 
lation of  good  taste  or  interference  with  other  and  more  ambitious  dee- 
orations. 

A  basin  to  contain  water  may  be  cheaply  constructed  of  brick  and 
cement,  and  will  add  very  much  to  the  variety  of  the  plants  that  may 
be  grown.  Shade  and  humidity,  which  are  essential  to  the  growth  of 
many  woodland  plants,  such  as  the  sarracenias  or  pitcher  plants,  and 
also  a  constant  evaporation  during  dry  periods  will  enable  these  and 


25 

plants  of  similar  habits  to  flourish  as  luxuriantly  in  an  artificial  state 
as  they  do  in  their  native  wilds. 

A  circular  basin,  8  or  10  feet  in  diameter  and  12  to  16  inches  in 
depth,  surrounded  by  a  rock-covered  mound  of  varied  breadth  and  ele- 
vation, will  afford  space  for  a  large  number  of  plants.  It  will  also 
allow  scope  for  tasteful  arrangement,  both  in  the  construction  of  the 
work  and  in  the  distribution  of  the  plants.  If  some  of  the  largest 
pieces  of  rock  are  allowed  to  project  over  the  water,  in  varied  shapes 
and  masses,  some  of  them  forming  foundation  for  miniature  perpen- 
dicular cliffs,  and  others  for  rapidly  receding  cavities,  a  pleasing  play 
of  light  and  shadow  will  be  thrown  over  the  surface  of  the  water. 

An  additional  feature  may  be  given  by  running  through  and  around 
the  rockwork  a  concealed  pipe,  with  numerous  small  perforations  over 
its  surface  through  which  water  will  be  conducted  to  the  plants,  trick- 
ling over  the  rocks  and  dropping  into  the  pool  below,  producing  at  once 
a  charming  rural  effect  and  a  congenial  atmosphere  for  the  vegetation. 

This,  or  some  similar  simple  method  of  arrangement,  will  usually  be 
more  satisfactory  then  an  iron  or  even  a  marble  fountain,  with  numer- 
ous fanciful  jets  and  basins,  supported  by  questionable  statuary,  dis- 
played in  a  conspicuous  position  on  the  lawn. 

By  the  use  of  small  stones  and  cement  a  center  ornament  may  be 
erected  in  the  basin,  and  a  jet  inserted,  through  which  the  water  is 
delivered  in  a  finely  divided  spray.  This  will  provide  hygroinetric  tem- 
perature peculiarly  adapted  to  such  situations  and  objects. 

There  are  but  few  country  places  where  the  means  for  securing  these 
specialties  can  not  readily  be  obtained.  The  water  supply  may  not 
always  be  convenient,  still  by  exercising  a  little  ingenuity  plans  may 
be  devised  for  its  introduction,  either  by  utilizing  the  waste  from  cis- 
terns or  forcing  it  into  elevated  receptacles.  It  may  be  mentioned  that 
small  jets  are  sometimes  supplied  by  rainwater  collected  in  cisterns, 
although  this  is  not  recommended  as  a  plan  likely  to  prove  satisfactory. 

A  species  of  rock  garden  of  more  elaborate  character  may  be  formed 
by  laying  out  a  small  geometric  plan  of  raised  beds  of  earth,  supported 
by  irregular-shaped  stones.  Old  tree-roots  may  also  be  used  to  elevate 
and  diversify  the  sky  outline.  These  will  in  time  become  covered  with 
foliage  of  creeping  plants,  ferns,  mosses,  and  other  low  growths.  The 
beds  should  be  planted  with  low-growing  hardy  evergreens,  such  as 
various  species  of  Juniperus,  Cupressus,  Biota,  Thuja,  Taxus,  and  Retino- 
spora.  The  Mahonias  are  well  suited  to  plant  in  such  positions.  Yuccas 
are  admirable,  giving  a  somewhat  oriental  character  when  massed  in 
groups.  Larger  trees  may  be  used  where  space  will  admit.  The  hem- 
lock spruce  is  beautiful  everywhere ;  the  silvery  deodar  cedar  will  give 
variety  of  color;  and  the  Pyracanth,  Rhododendrons,  and  Kalmias, 
with  many  others,  may  be  formed  into  picturesque  groups  of  great 
beauty,  depending  very  much,  however,  upon  their  location  and  skill- 
ful arrangement. 


26 

The  more  robust  plants  may  be  pruned  when  necessary  to  keep  them 
within  prescribed  limits,  and  shaded  spots  will  be  found  where  the 
Epigseas,  Mitchellas,  ferns,  and  kindred  plants  can  be  introduced,  de- 
sirable and  interesting  either  for  their  floral  beauty  or  their  histori- 
cal and  botanical  associations. 

WATER— LAKES. 

When  appropriately  introduced  the  effect  of  water  in  pleasure 
grounds  is  always  pleasing;  frequently  it  is  strikingly  beautiful,  and, 
of  all  the  materials  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  natural  scenery 
there  are  none  that  produce  a  greater  amount  of  varied  interest  and 
beauty.  It  is  therefore  eagerly  desired  as  an  adjunct  to  the  mere  arti- 
ficial improvements  of  private  residences,  public  institutions,  and  city 
parks,  and  is  always  a  valuable  acquisition  where  it  can  be  secured. 

To  form  an  artificial  lake  the  first  requisite  is  an  ample  supply  of 
water  at  all  seasons.  There  can  not  well  be  a  more  unsatisfactory 
object  in  artificial  grounds  than  a  lake  where  the  supply  of  water  is  in- 
sufficient to  keep  it  properly  filled,  and  where  natural  facilities  for  a 
constant  supply  does  not  exist,  its  construction  should  not  be  attempted. 
The  surface  water  or  casual  supply  derived  from  rains  and  snows  may 
be  sufficient  during  winter  and  spring,  but  entirely  inadequate  to  meet 
the  evaporation  during  the  summer;  and  lakes  that  are  dependent 
upon  thjs  source,  and  become  partially  empty  and  stagnant  during  the 
warm  season,  are  as  injurious  to  health  as  they  are  opposed  to  all  cor- 
rect ideas  of  beauty. 

Water  for  ponds  is  sometimes  procured  from  the  discharges  of  under- 
ground drains,  and  where  the  drained  area  is  extensive  enough  to  fur- 
nish all  the  water  necessary,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  observations 
during  summer,  a  pond  may  be  excavated  at  the  lowest  point,  allow- 
ing the  surface  of  the  water  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  discharge  pipes 
of  the  drains.  The  excavated  soil  can  be  used  in  forming  banks  of 
varied  heights  and  configurations.  The  outline  of  the  pond,  like  that 
of  a  belt  of  trees  or  shrubbery  border  skirting  a  lawn,  should  be  varied 
and  irregular,  with  bold  points  and  deep  indentations,  and  these  should 
be  few  and  bold  rather  than  frequent  and  tame.  The  resemblance  be- 
tween a  level  lawn,  surrounded  by  curved  outlines  of  shrubbery,  and 
that  of  a  smooth  sheet  of  water  in  a  pond  or  small  lake,  with  jutting 
banks  and  retiring  bays,  is  very  close  so  far  as  relates  to  their  artistic 
treatment  in  ornamental  planting. 

The  most  natural  position  for  a  sheet  of  water  is  in  a  hollow  or  low 
ground  occupied  by  a  constantly  running  stream.  It  frequently  occurs 
that  small  streams  are  so  situated  that  by  skillfully  throwing  a  dam 
across  the  valley  hollow  through  which  the  water  runs  a  large  surface 
may  be  flooded  and  the  water  permanently  retained.  The  water  level 
on  the  surrounding  ground  will  probably  show  a  beautifully  varied 
outline,  which  may  be  increased  or  rendered  more  definite  by  deepening 


27 

bay-like  recesses  and  adding  to  prominent  or  jutting  points.  This, 
together  with  the  effects  that  may  be  produced  by  planting,  will  give 
variety  to  otherwise  monotonous  outlines. 

In  geometrically  arranged  flower  gardens  simple  basins  of  water  may 
be  introduced  with  good  effect  either  with  fountains  or  without  them. 
In  these  situations  the  marginal  finish  or  connection  between  the  grass 
and  water  should  be  of  an  architectural  description.  Any  attempt 
made  toward  a  rugged  or  what  is  usually  termed  a  natural-looking 
finish  will  certainly  prove  unsatisfactory. 

ENTRANCE  GATES  AND  CARRIAGE  TURNS. 

First  impressions  are  strongly  influencing  and  oftentimes  prove  to 
be  the  foundation  of  lasting  prejudices.  A  neatly  designed  and  taste- 
fully arranged  gateway  at  the  entrance  of  a  property  creates  the  favor- 
able expectation  of  finding  these  characteristics  pervading  other  im- 
provements. An  imposing  entrance  way  therefore  becomes  an  impor- 
tant feature;  but  it  should  always  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  general 
style  and  scale  of  the  situation,  and  if  it  is  architectural  in  design, 
should  harmonize  with  the  style  of  the  mansion  to  which  it  is  an  adjunct; 
at  the  same  time  it  may  be  more  highly  ornamented,  keeping  strictly 
in  mind  that  no  amount  of  mere  decoration  will  compensate  for  any 
appearance  of  insufficient  strength  or  utility. 

Iron  gates  appear  to  greatest  advantage  when  they  are  hung  to  stone 
posts  or  attached  to  pillars  of  masonry.  A  single  block  of  granite, 
fashioned  into  a  post  forms  a  very  satisfactory  support  for  an  ordinary 
iron  gate.  Large,  heavy,  and  elaborately  constructed  iron  gates  de- 
mand heavier  and  more  massive  supporting  pillars,  ornamented  to  cor- 
respond with  the  style  and  finish  of  the  gate.  The  main  or  principal 
entrance  gate  to  any  place,  even  of  the  most  humble  description,  should 
be  placed  on  a  line  receding  more  or  less  from  the  line  of  the  outside  or 
public  road,  being  connected  with  the  latter  by  a  curved  line  of  fence. 
The  extent  of  this  recess  will  vary  with  the  extent  of  the  place,  facili- 
ties of  position,  and  size  and  style  of  the  gate,  but  10  to  30  feet  may 
be  given  as  a  range.  Even  in  places  of  quite  limited  extent  the  former 
distance  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  decided  effect  without  encroaching 
too  severely  on  the  grounds,  and  will  establish  a  largeness  of  expres- 
sion to  the  whole  surroundings.  In  placing  posts  for  gates  the  mistake 
is  frequently  made  of  setting  them  parallel  to  the  public  road  instead 
of  having  them  at  a  right  angle  to  the  road  to  which  they  properly  be- 
long. When  the  private  road  leaves  the  public  one  at  right  angles 
and  continues  in  a  straight  line  for  some  distance  the  gate  will,  of 
course,  be  properly  placed  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  public  road ;  but 
where  the  front  lawn  is  small  in  extent  and  it  becomes  a  necessity  to 
branch  the  road  suddenly  to  right  or  left  the  importance  of  adhering 
strictly  to  the  rule  of  placing  the  gate  at  a  right  angle  to  the  carriage 
road  will  appear  very  conspicuous,  for  if  the  posts  are  set  parallel  with 


28 

the  public  road  it  will  be  found  to  be  a  matter  of  much  nicety  to  drive 
a  carriage  through  the  gateway  without  either  coining  in  contact  with 
the  post  or  allowing  the  horses  to  walk  on  the  grass  or  road  edging. 
Examples  of  this  may  be  seen  in  most  suburban  districts. 

The  greater  the  inequality  of  the  respective  distances  between  the 
posts  and  the  line  of  the  outside  or  public  road  the  more  difference  will 
there  be  in  the  length  of  the  curved  lines  connecting  them  with  the 
fence.  One  will  be  much  shorter  and  have  a  different  radius  from  the 
other;  but  this  will  not  destroy  the  symmetry  of  composition  which  a 
gateway  should  possess,  since  the  apparent  utility  of  the  arrangement 
will  convey  a  strong  reason  for  its  adoption,  which  can  be  further  in- 
creased by  the  judicious  planting  of  trees ;  besides,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  an  expression  of  symmetry  can  be  obtained  without  having 
a  strict  adherence  to  uniformity  in  detail. 

A  space  sufficiently  large  to  allow  a  carriage  to  turn  is  a  necessary 
convenience  to  a  house,  and  should  be  as  near  the  main  entrance  as 
practicable.  In  the  front  of  very  large  buildings  a  gravel  space  wide 
enough  for  this  purpose  is  sometimes  provided ;  but  when  the  house  is  one 
of  ordinary  dimensions,  and  the  grounds  of  only  moderate  extent,  a  large 
gravel  space  will  very  materially  abridge  the  breadth  of  the  front.  The 
reflection  of  heat  from  gravel  is  not  pleasant,  neither  is  it  so  agreeable 
to  the  eye  as  the  grassy  lawn.  Some  of  the  objections  to  an  open  gravel 
space  are  removed  by  forming  a  circular  carriage-way  directly  in  front 
of  the  house,  inclosing  a  bed  for  shrubbery  or  a  grass  plot.  The  amount 
of  roadway  is,  by  this  mode,  somewhat  reduced,  but  the  evil  of  break- 
ing up  the  front  still  exists ;  nor  does  it  provide  all  the  requirements 
of  a  carriage  turn,  as  there  is  no  alternative  but  to  perambulate  the 
circle  when  retiring ;  and  the  annoyance  of  having  vehicles  and  animals 
obstructing  the  view  from  the  principal  windows  of  the  house  is  also  a 
great  objection  to  this  arrangement.  The  best  position  for  a  carriage- 
turn  is  beyond  the  house,  so  that  a  vehicle,  after  approaching  the  main 
entrance  can  proceed  on  ward,  turn,  and  approach  the  house  again  in  the 
opposite  direction.  The  turn  in  this  case  can  be  partially  screened  from 
the  house  by  planting  shrubbery ;  and  arrangements  for  tying  horses 
can  be  made  in  unobjectionable  positions  where  they  will  not  present 
annoying  features  as  seen  from  the  house.  This  allows  the  grass  or 
lawn  to  be  carried  closer  to  the  building,  the  roadway  only  intervening, 
and  the  side  grouping  of  plants  can  be  executed  much  more  effectively. 
The  curve  of  the  road,  entering  into  the  grounds  on  one  side,  will  be 
balanced  by  a  similar  curve  on  the  other  side  towards  the  turn.  In  this 
proximity  to  a  building,  the  walks,  as  well  as  artificial  plantings,  should 
be  symmetrical  in  their  tendencies  and  in  keeping  with  the  formal  style 
of  treatment  which  such  a  position  demands.  The  central  view  from 
the  building  will  be  open,  and  impart  an  expression  of  freedom  and 
apparent  extent  of  lawn,  which  is  always  pleasing,  particularly  in  lim- 
ited areas. 


29 

PLANTING  ROADS  AND  AVENUES. 

In  the  planting  of  straight  roads  and  avenues  it  is  essential  to  pre- 
serve regularity  of  line,  as  also  uniformity  in  the  color  and  shape  of 
the  trees.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  sublime  in  landscape  gardening 
is  in  effects  produced  by  extended  uniform  lines  of  trees.  Continuity 
of  line  and  uniformity  of  object,  when  combined  with  great  extension, 
produce  sublimity.  Objects  are  sublime  which  possess  quantity  and 
simplicity  in  conjunction.  It  is  not  on  a  small  rivulet,  however  trans- 
parent or  beautifully  winding  it  may  be;  it  is  not  on  a  narrow  valley, 
though  variegated  with  flowers  of  a  thousand  hues;  it  is  not  on  small 
elevations,  though  they  are  clothed  with  the  most  delightful  verdure, 
that  we  bestow  the  epithet  sublime ;  but  it  is  upon  Niagara,  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Andes,  the  ocean,  the  wide  expanse  of  the  firmament,  or  the 
immensity  of  space  uniformly  extended,  without  limit  and  without 
apparent  termination.  To  produce  this  effect  it  is  therefore  imperative 
that  only  one  variety  of  tree  should  be  used.  Anything  that  tends  to 
break  up  the  uniform  continuity  will  at  once  destroy  it.  A  straight 
avenue  planted  with  a  variety  of  trees  of  varied  forms,  some  broad  and 
spreading,  others  tall,  pointed,  and  spiry,  is  as  much  at  variance  with 
good  taste  as  would  be  a  Grecian  fagade  furnished  with  columns  embrac- 
ing all  the  different  orders  of  architecture.  Among  the  best  trees  for 
planting  wide  avenues  are  the  tulip  tree,  the  sugar  and  the  silver 
maple,  lindens,  sycamores,  walnuts,  oaks,  and  chestnuts.  For  narrower 
roads,  those  from  16  to  20  feet  in  width,  the  Norway  maple,  the  black 
and  white  ash,  the  horse  chestnut,  and  those  of  kindred  habit  will  be 
more  suitable. 

On  long  and  wide  avenues,  in  positions  where  aside  view  of  the  lines 
is  prominent,  the  wall -like  effect  may  be  very  much  softened  and  toned 
down  by  setting  a  double  or  even  triple  row  of  trees,  and  this  will  be 
still  further  increased  by  planting  each  opposite  row,  respectively,  with 
a  distinct  kind.  An  avenue  of  tulip  trees  will  in  this  arrangement  be 
well  supported  by  an  outside  line  of  red  maples,  their  forms  will  blend- 
pleasingly,  and  the  contrast  of  their  spring  verdure  and  autumn  color 
ings  will  be  agreeable.  In  a  similar  disposition  the  sugar  maple,  sweet 
gum,  and  ash-leaved  maple  may  be  used.  Such  combinations  may  be 
indefinitely  varied  and  adapted  to  the  embellishment  of  avenues  as  their 
extent  and  importance  may  demand  or  require. 

In  planting  curving  roads,  the  disposition  of  the  trees  will  obviously  be 
determined  by  the  general  character  of  the  grounds  through  which  the 
road  passes. 

In  places  of  G  to  10  acres  in  extent,  and  in  form  nearly  of  a  square  or 
parallelogram,  with  the  mansion  placed  100  yards  back  of  the  front 
line,  the  entrance  gate  may  be  judiciously  set  near  one  of  the  comers, 
and  the  road  gradually  curve  to  the  building.  A  single  continuous 
row  of  trees  on  one  side  of  this  road  would  have  a  monotonous  effect, 


30 

and  a  row  on  each  side  would  destroy  and  completely  break  up  any  at- 
tempt at  breadth  of  view.  The  road  should  rather  appear  to  curve 
round  and  pass  through  masses  of  trees  and  shrubbery  plantations. 
While  attention  may  be  given  to  partially  shading  the  road  by  placing 
suitable  trees  mainly  on  the  south  and  west  sides,  yet  these  shade  trees 
should  form  only  a  portion  of  groups,  with  an  occasional  isolated  single 
specimen  tree ;  or,  what  is  still  better,  two  trees  of  the  same  kind  set  6 
to  10  feet  apart,  so  that  when  they  grow  up  they  will  give  a  distant  ap- 
pearance as  of  a  single  tree,  with  the  additional  variety  of  aspect  when 
closely  viewed.  The  planting  of  groups  should  be  more  extensive  and 
massive  on  the  inner  circle,  around  which  the  road  will  curve,  with 
frequent  open  vistas  looking  in  upon  the  lawn.  The  width  and  length 
of  the  road  and  extent  of  lawn  will  designate  the  size  of  the  groups, 
and  also  suggest  the  particular  kind  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  which  they 
are  to  be  composed.  Shade  trees  may  be  thus  introduced  in  sufficient 
quantities,  even  on  winding  roads,  to  answer  the  combined  purposes  of 
shade  and  garniture,  without  producing  an  appearance  of  strained  ef- 
fort to  secure  it. 

Where  the  road  is  wholly  on  the  southern  side  of  the  dwelling,  decidu- 
ous trees  should  be  used  in  front  or  near  the  building.  If  the  entrance- 
and  the  road  are  north  of  the  house,  a  straight  avenue  of  evergreen 
trees  will  form  an  admirable  feature,  if  ample  space  is  allowed  for  both 
road  and  trees.  The  Norway  spruce  is,  perhaps,  the  first  choice  of  tree 
for  such  planting.  The  hemlock  spruce  is  the  more  graceful  and  the 
best  adapted  to  short  roads  or  narrow  grounds.  The  Austrian,  the 
Scotch,  and  the  white  pine  may  be  used  where  the  grounds  are  exten- 
sive. Even  when  the  Norway  spruce  is  used  the  parallel  lines  should 
be  60  feet  apart,  not  only  to  admit  of  sun  and  winds  to  act  directly  on 
the  roadway,  but  also  to  give  ample  room  for  the  spread  of  the  lower 
branches  of  the  trees ;  and  in  no  case  should  they  be  planted  nearer 
than  16  feet  from  the  edge  of  the  road,  and  when  the  larger  and  more 
widely-spreading  pines  are  used,  a  space  of  at  least  20  feet  should  be 
given.  A  very  meager  effect  will  result  from  planting  close  to  road- 
ways, narrowing  them  into  mere  strips,  which  for  at  least  one-half  of 
the  year  are  seldom  dry. 

PLANTING   NEAR  BUILDINGS. 

A  mischievous  error,  and  one  too  frequently  perpetrated,  is  that  of 
placing  trees  close  to  buildings.  Although  trees  and  shrubs  are  the 
chief  decorative  ornaments  of  a  place,  they  become  not  only  disagree- 
ble  but  positively  injurious  to  animal  life,  when  closely  massed  around 
a  habitation,  by  shutting  out  light  and  preventing  the  rays  of  the  sun 
and  drying  action  of  the  winds  from  exerting  their  salutary  influence  on 
the  walls,  which  in  consequence  are  constantly  damp  and  unhealthy. 
Where  large  trees  are  allowed  to  spread  and  overhang  the  roofs,  choking 
gutters  and  water  }ea4ers?  au4  causing  a,  Deposit  of  mold  ancj  other 


31 

fungoid  growths  as  far  as  their  influence  extends,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  house  to  be  dry,  comfortable,  or  healthy  for  human  beings.  Many 
of  the  older  houses  throughout  the  country  are  rendered  almost  unin- 
habitable by  the  dense  surroundings  of  trees  and  shrubbery,  and  the 
evil  is  greatly  aggravated  when  the  trees  are  of  evergreen  species. 
Ventilation  is  produced  by  heat,  and  a  building  shaded  from  the  rays 
of  tbe  sun  by  lofty  trees  and  sheltered  from,  currents  of  air  by  thickets 
of  shrubbery  is  deprived  of  the  influences  most  conducive  to  health, 
and  is  a  fitting  subject  for  the  attention  of  a  sanitary  commission. 

Plantings  of  the  finer  species  of  dwarf  flowering  shrubs  may  be 
placed  in  moderately  large  masses  on  the  lawn  near  the  house  with- 
out any  great  injury  if  not  too  frequently  repeated;  but  even  the 
smaller  growing  shrubbery,  if  planted  in  continuous  thickets  near 
the  building,  in  any  way  except  a  northerly  direction,  will  sensibly 
exclude  the  genial  cool  breezes  so  grateful  during  the  summer.  A 
house  nestling  on  the  sunny  side  of  an  evergreen  plantation  is  sug- 
gestive of  comfort,  and  presents  a  cheerful,  sheltered  appearance  dur- 
ing winter.  It  is  as  economical  as  it  is  attractive,  as  many  persons  can 
testify  who  have  had  the  foresight  to  plant  sheltering  borders  of  ever- 
greens in  bleak  and  treeless  situations,  and  in  consequence  are  realizing 
a  higher  thermometric  temperature ;  but  even  these,  to  be  of  greatest 
benefit,  should  not  approach  within  100  feet  of  the  house,  at  least  not 
in  a  mass.  Isolated  specimens  of  rare  or  otherwise  specially  interesting 
trees  may  be  planted  nearer,  but  only  on  the  northern  sides  of  the  house. 

A  certain  amount  of  shade  is  very  desirable  in  connection  with  a 
house,  especially  in  climates  where,  during  a  great  portion  of  the  time, 
it  is  more  agreeable  out  of  doors  than  it  is  in  rooms ;  yet  it  had  better 
be  secured  by  covered  verandas  than  by  trees.  It  is  also  more  con- 
ducive to  health  to  sit  under  a  covered  roof.  Exposure  to  evening  dews 
is  a  well-known  fruitful  source  of  sickness,  and  the  partial  protection 
afforded  by  the  overhanging  branches  of  trees  is  not  sufficient  when 
dew  is  forming. 

Trees  of  the  large-growing  species  should  not  be  planted  nearer  than 
60  feet  to  the  walls  of  a  dwelling  house.  Such  trees  are  the  sugar  and 
the  silver  maple,  the  sycamore,  elm,  linden,  ash,  chestnut,  and  poplar. 
Trees  of  medium  growth,  such  as  the  Norway  and  the  English  maple, 
and  others  of  this  class  that  do  not  attain  a  height  of  more  than  30  feetx 
may  be  planted  30  to  40  feet  from  the  building. 

Another  disadvantage  resulting  from  surrounding  the  building  with  a 
thicket  of  foliage  is,  that  it  shuts  out  the  views  of  immediate  and  distant 
scenery  ;  as  seen  from  the  house  at  the  same  time  the  house,  as  an  object 
of  the  local  landscape,  is  completely  hidden  from  view.  If  the  architec- 
ture of  the  structure  has  received  any  study  as  a  work  of  artistic  design, 
it  should  in  itself  form  a  picture  which  to  be  properly  appreciated  must 
be  seen  and  viewed  as  a  whole,  so  that  its  proportions,  outlines,  eleva- 
{4ons?  and  ornamental  details  may  be  taken  in  at  one  view.  Even  beds 


32 

of  low  shrubbery,  if  abundantly  introduced  near  the  base  of  a  building, 
will  foreshorten  the  elevation,  obstruct  the  view  of  the  horizontal  base 
line,  and  seemingly  destroy  architectural  proportions.  Many  of  the 
finest  structures,  both  public  and  private,  are  ruinously  shorn  of  their 
beauty  by  careless  or  ignorant  planters,  who,  in  their  endeavors  to  beau- 
tify a  building,  succeed  only  in  concealing  those  salient  lines  and  pro- 
jections that  give  it  character  and  distinctiveness. 

A  proper  connection  of  the  house  with  its  surroundings  is  the  first 
point  to  which  attention  should  be  given  in  laying  out  grounds,  as  it  is 
the  most  prominent  and  leading  detail  of  improvements.  A  house 
should  not  appear  to  have  risen  out  of  the  green  lawn  like  a  tree.  It 
is  necessary  that  some  evidence  should  be  apparent  of  suitable  prepa- 
ration having  been  made  for  the  building ;  at  least  a  level  platform  of 
more  or  less  width  should  project  from  the  base  line.  The  ground  line 
should  be  level,  and  all  walks  should  correspond  with  the  lines  of  the 
ground  plan.  Zigzag  and  curving  walks  close  to  the  straight  lines  of 
a  large  or  even  the  most  humble  building  are  directly  opposed  to 
beauty  or  propriety  ;  they  are  sure  evidence  of  unskilled  labor. 

The  principal  front  of  a  building  should  show  a  terrace,  either  archi- 
tecturally treated  or  at  least  with  the  architectural  appendages.  The 
level  line  of  the  terrace  will  furnish  a  uniform  base  to  the  building,  and 
masses  of  low-growing  plants  may  be  introduced  below  the  terrace  where 
they  will  not  interfere  with  the  view  of  the  structure.  A  few  trees  may 
be  planted  at  the  ends  or  in  the  rear,  which  will  serve  to  connect  the 
house  with  the  grounds  and  their  scenery,  and  this  can  be  done  with- 
out either  hiding  or  overshadowing  the  building. 

It  has  long  been  laid  down  as  a  general  principle  that  round-headed 
trees  contrast  best  with  the  prevailing  perpendicular  lines  of  Gothic 
architecture,  and  those  of  the  pointed  or  conic  shape  with  the  hori- 
zontal of  the  Grecian.  It  may  be  questioned  whether  either  of  these 
rules  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  be  worthy  of  consideration  ;  certain  it  is 
that  there  may  be  found  compositions  of  expressive  beauty  where  the 
arrangements  are  the  reverse  of  those  proposed  in  this  general  princi- 
ple. It  is  perhaps  nearer  the  facts  to  state  that  in  the  arrangement  of 
forms  harmony  will  prove  more  pleasing  than  contract;  but  when  ap- 
plied to  colors  contrast  will  develop  the  most  distinct  and  expressive 
compositions. 

GROUPING  TREES  AND  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTING  IN  MASSES. 

Among  the  various  operative  details  in  landscape  gardening  the 
arrangement  of  vegetation  is  the  most  important,  and  there  is  no  other 
that  shows  so  distinctly  the  artistic  skill  and  arboriculiural  knowledge 
of  the  operator.  While  this  is  the  most  decisive  as  to  the  ultimate 
beauty  and  value  of  the  improvements,  it  is  acknowledged  to  be  the 
least  understood  ;  for  artists  of  considerable  repute,  who  may  establish 
grades,  run  lines  of  roads,  and  stake  out  places  for  groups  and  single 


33 

trees,  fail  to  designate  the  kind  of  plants  to  be  used,  thus  leaving  to 
mere  chance  the  only  features  where  artistic  merit  can  be  developed. 
Some  of  the  principal  and  most  conspicuous  effects  that  may  be  real- 
ized from  grouping  and  placing  trees  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  formation  of  distinct  groups  of  the  various  species  and  varieties 
of  trees. — In  planting  public  parks,  college  and  school-house  grounds, 
or  private  grounds,  if  of  sufficient  extent,  a  great  amount  of  aiboricul- 
tural  interest  will  be  iuduced  by  forming  groups  of  certain  families, 
genera,  or  natural  orders  or  plants.     It  might  be  presumed  that  this 
mode  of  arrangement  would  sacrifice  beauty,  in  order  to  carry  out  a 
rneie  mechanical  system  of  disposition,  such  as  may  be  seen  in  orchards, 
and  would  prove  monotonous,  and  destitute  of  that  variety  which  re- 
sults from  a  combination  of  different  species.    This  is  to  a  certain  extent 
true  where  the  grounds  are  not  extensive  and  the  planting  is  confined 
to  one  principal  group.     In  that  case  the  use  of  diversified  materials 
will  invest  the  group  with  a  greater  variety  of  interest  to  the  lover  of 
trees,  and  that  also  without  impairing  the  landscape  effect,  if  the  ar- 
rangement is  properly  carried  out ;   but   where  the,  plantation  is  ex- 
tended over  several  acres,  the  groups  will  be  more  definite  and  distinct- 
ive in  character  if  each  is  chiefly  planted  with  the  plants  of  one  genus. 
This  may  be  partly  illustrated  by  supposing  that  there  are  twelve  prin- 
cipal masses  to  be  planted,  and  twelve  species  of  trees  are  employed. 
If  each  mass  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  the  twelve  species,  theresult 
will  be  twelve  groups  of  precisely  the  same  character;  whereas  if  each 
group  is  strictly  confined  to  one  species,  the  groups  will  be  entirely  dis- 
similar, each  forming  a  distinct  feature.     Thus  groups  of  maples,  oaks, 
birches,  elms,  etc.,  will  follow  in  succession;  and  where  whole  families 
are  thus  connected,  there  will  be  sufficient  difference  in  form  and  habit 
of  growth  among  the  species  to  give  variety  to  the  group  when  inspected 
in  detail,  and  at  the  same  time  the  mass  will  present  distinctive  fea- 
tures peculiar  to  the  genus  represented.     In  ornamenting  the  grounds 
of  colleges  and  other  seats  of  education  this  mode  of  planting  is  par- 
ticularly appropriate,  affording  admirable  facilities  for  studying  the  in- 
dividual trees  and  comparing  them  with  other  species  of  the  same 
family.    The  beauty  of  this  arrangement  will  depend  upon  the  harmo- 
nious connection  of  forms  and  adaptation  of  the  respective  growths  to 
certain  positions  in  the  groups. 

2,  Planting  evergreens  with  a  view  tojorming  a  distinct  winter  scenery. — 
No  effective  or  perfectly  satisfactory  results  will  be  produced  from  a 
general  intermixture  of  deciduous  and  evergreen  plants.    In  forming 
shrubbery  borders  this  distinction  is  not  so  strictly  important  as  it  is  in 
the  case  of  trees ;  but  even  in  the  arrangement  of  shrubs  afar  more 
polished  and  artistic  finish  will  be  given  by  placing  the  larger  growth 
of  deciduous  plants  in  the  background,  and  bordering  towards  the  front 
with  some  of  the  low-growing  evergreen  species.    One  of  the  most  de- 
£irable  plants  for  an  edging  to  %  border  of  shrubbery  j§  the  Mahonio, 

28581 3 


34 

acquifolia.  It  grows  in  a  compact,  rounding  form,  and  is  beautiful  at 
all  seasons,  whether  in  the  glossy  brightness  of  its  varnished  foliage 
during  winter,  the  profuse  cluster  of  its  yellow  blossoms  in  spring,  the 
fern-like  delicacy  of  its  young  foliage  in  .early  summer,  or  when  laden 
with  clusters  of  its  dark-colored  berries.  Where  the  mercury  frequently 
sinks  below  zero  this  plant  will  not  prove  ornamental.  The  recent  addi- 
tions to  our  hardy  evergreen  shrubs  have  been  notable  and  valuable. 
The  retinosporas  alone  comprise  great  variety.  The  Euonymus  japonicus 
and  its  silver  and  gold  striped  varieties,  furnish  valuable  material  where 
they  will  withstand  the  winters.  The  taxus,  cupressus,  juniperus,  and 
thujas  furnish  numerous  plants  of  dwarf  growth  for  the  shrubbery. 

Ln  respect  to  the  heavier  tree  growths,  it  is  clearly  manifest  that  the 
finest  examples  of  arrangement  are  those  where  evergreen  and  decidu- 
ous trees  are  treated  as  forming  distinct  scenery;  and  of  these  the 
evergreens  are,  perhaps,  the  most  valuable  because  they  furnish  a  win- 
ter clothing  to  the  landscape,  with  but  little  aid  from  deciduous  plauts, 
while  the  summer  assistance  of  the  latter  only  supplement  and  adorn 
the  forms  and  colors  of  the  evergreens. 

To  produce  the  best  winter  effect  from  evergreens,  they  should  be 
planted  mainly  in  the  foreground,  particularly  on  such  projecting  points 
as  are  conspicuous,  so  that  while  these  points  or  groups  may  be  rather 
widely  separated,  they  will  have  a  continuous  appearance  by  the  tops 
of  those  in  one  group  apparently  connecting  with  the  lower  branches  of 
the  group  beyond,  as  seen  from  the  principal  points  ot  view.  An  indis- 
criminate mixture  of  all  kinds  of  trees  is  destructive  of  beauty.  The 
deciduous  varieties  diminish  the  beauty  of  evergreens  during  winter  by 
breaking  up  the  continuity  of  color  and  respose  so  essential  to  the  best 
effects,  either  in  gardening  or  painting  ;  and  during  the  summer  sea- 
son, the  more  numerous  the  branches  and  broader  expanse  of  foliage  of 
the  deciduous  trees,  if  close  to  evergreens,  will  overpower  the  latter, 
and,  in  time,  completely  destroy  them,  by  an  excessive  amount  of  shade, 
and  also  by  the  extraction  of  moisture  from  the  soil.  For  defining  out- 
lines or  rounding  off  groups,  no  plant  is  so  appropriate  or  can  so  well 
be  adapted  to  any  position  as  the  hemlock  spruce.  Its  wavy  branches 
convey  a  more  finished  impression  than  any  other  hardy  evergreen,  and 
no  other  can  excel  it  either  in  beauty  of  growth  or  general  usefulness  in 
producing  the  best  effects  of  landscape  gardening. 

3.  To  gradually  Mend  evergreen  and  deciduous  plantations  by  pleasing 
connections. — The  majority  of  evergreen  trees  are  conical  and  pointed 
in  form,  while  among  deciduous  species  the  prevailing  habit  is  flat  or 
round-headed;  but  trees  of  those  opposite  forms  may  be  found  in  both 
classes.  Spiry  topped  and  conical  forms  are  seen  in  the  larches,  Caro- 
lina cypress,  Lonibardy,  and  other  poplars,  and  round-headed  ever- 
greens ere  seen  in  the  Scotch  and  Austrian  pine.  Many  species  of  the 
pine  tribe,  although  of  a  pyramidal  or  pointed  form  when  the  plants 
are  young,  assume  an  open,  spreading  habit  as  they  become  older. 


35 

To  connect  evergreen  and  deciduous  groups  those  trees  that  partake 
of  intermediate  characteristics  should  be  employed  in  blending  the  two 
classes,  where  the  plantation  "is  continuous;  and  where  a  more  distinct 
but  not  abrupt  line  of  separation  is  required  between  the  two,  it  may  be 
judiciously  accomplished  and  the  margin  of  each  group  be  toned  down 
by  introducing  a  few  of  the  most  graceful  trees  of  both  classes,  such  as 
the  Norway  and  English  maple,  negundo,  and  yellow  wood  among 
deciduous,  and  the  hemlock  spruce,  Lawson's  cypress,  arbor  vitses,  and 
retinosporas  among  evergreen  species.  The  rather  novel  difference 
between  the  arboreal  aspect  and  the  botanical  classification  of  the  Salis- 
buria  adiantifolia  renders  it  peculiarly  appropriate  for  an  intermediate 
position  between  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees. 

4.  To  place  certain  trees  in  conspicuous  positions. — Trees  that  are  pre- 
eminently notable,  on  account  of  their  rarity,  beauty,  or  botanical  his- 
torical associations,  may  be  placed  as  isolated  specimens  in  prominent 
positions  on  the  lawn.    This  interpolation,  however,  should  be  carefully 
studied ;  a  single  tree,  if  wrongly  placed,  may  destroy  a  fine  picture. 
Indeed,  it  is  everywhere  evident  that  the  greatest  prevailing  error  in 
arranging  ornamental  plantations  is  the  oft-repeated  singletree,  dotting 
every  spare  surface  with  a  plant,  producing  a  spottiness  quite  opposed 
either  to  beauty  or  design. 

Single  trees  may  be  made  still  more  conspicuous  by  planting  them  on 
slightly  elevated  mounds;  this  will  add  to  their  general  effect,  and 
allow  perfect  freedom  for  assuming  their  normal  habit  of  growth. 
Trees  worthy  of  so  distinguished  sites,  for  their  beauty  of  growth,  are 
very  numerous ;  but  for  extensive  grounds,  where  the  largest  class  may 
be  introduced,  the  Magnolia  acuminata,  the  sugar  and  Korway  maple, 
Cladastris  tinctoria,  Osage  orange,  negundo,  willow-leaved  oak,  and 
English  maple  may  be  noted  as  a  few  of  the  deciduous ;  while  among 
evergreens,  the  hemlock  and  Norway  spruce,  Himalaya  pine,  Nordinan 
fir,  Nootka  cypress,  and  Siberian  arbor  vitse,  may  be  specially  mentioned. 

Of  rare  and  interesting  trees  the  list  is  extensive,  and  will  vary  ac- 
cording to  individual  tastes  and  studies;  the  extent  of  ground  and 
general  disposition  of  other  plants  will  also  influence  the  selection  and 
number  of  single  specimens. 

5.  Plant  with  reference  to  individual  beauty,  as  also  with  regard  to  that 
resulting  from  a  combination  of  forms. — Isolating  the  trees,  as  alluded 
to  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  will  produce  the  highest  degree  of  indi- 
vidual beauty  and  development.     But  to  realize  all  the  variety  that 
may  be  obtained  from  contrast  of  forms,  foliage,  and  flowers  requires 
more  careful  study  and  preparation.    Irregularity  of  distance  between 
plants  will  in  itself  affect  variety  in  composition.     Very  little  either 
of  beauty  or  interest  can  attach  to  lawns  where  every  tree  is  equi- 
distant, or  apparently  so,  from  its  neignbor,  like  so  many  cabbages  or 
currant  bushes.    If  we  observe  the  disposition  of  trees  in  any  natural 
group  that  attracts  our  attention,  we  shall  learn  that  the  influence  of 


36 

unequal  distance  in  massing  foliage  and  causing  minor  groupings  of 
branches  and  stems  is  very  great.  To  produce  a  similarly  pleasing 
variety  of  stems  and  outlines  it  will  be  essential  to  imitate  to  some 
extent  the  mode  in  which  natural  groves  are  formed,  even  to  placing 
several  trees  together  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  several  stems 
issuing  from  the  same  root.  A  degree  of  naturalness  will  thus  be  im- 
posed upon  groups,  even  should  there  not  be  any  attempt  at  contrast- 
ing or  harmonizing  forms ;  but  this  latter  will  show  more  decidedly  the 
foresight  and  skill  of  the  designer. 

6.  To  produce  a  pleasing  sky  outline  to  all  heavy  masses  or  distinct 
groups. — The  sky  outline  composition   of   groups  is  a  pleasing  and 
noticeable  feature.    The  monotonous  sameness  in  the  aspect  of  a  peach 
or  an  apple  orchard  is  a  familiar  result  and  example  of  what  may  be 
intensified  by  closely  planted  masses  of  formal  growing  trees.    But  it 
is  a  rare  occurrence  to  find  such  monotony  in  natural  forest  scenery. 
A  great  diversity  of  sky  outline  will  prevail,  especially  on  the  margins 
of  groves,  where  the  foliage  is  continued  by  suitable  undergrowths 
down  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.     Such  distinct  and  unique  forms  as 
theLombardy  poplar,  deciduous  cypress,  larches,  and  similarly  pointed 
trees  will  give  a  spirited  effect  to  the  most  commonplace  groups. 

The  edges  of  plantations  composed  of  larger  growing  trees  will  be 
softened  by  the  introduction  of  drooping  forms ;  and  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  compositions,  with  reference  to  direction  and  curvature  of 
branches,  as  well  as  to  sky  outline,  is  that  produced  by  surrounding 
two  or  three  Lombardy  poplars  with  a  circle  of  weeping  willows.  The 
poplars  should  not  be  more  than  12  feet  apart,  and  should  form  one 
central  figure ;  if  spread  out  singly  the  distinctive  feature  of  a  spiry 
column  will  not  be  secured. 

Similar  effects  may  be  secured  with  groups  of  evergreen  trees.  The 
balsam  fir  is  admirably  effective  as  a  center  to  a  mass  of  lighter  col- 
ored evergreens,  owing  to  its  heavy,  dark  hue.  The  Scotch  pine  and 
the  Austrian  are  well  adapted,  both  in  color  and  form,  to  accompany 
the  balsam  fir,  and  the  beauty  of  finish  can  be  added  by  introducing 
the  wavy  branchlets  of  the  hemlock  spruce. 

7.  Plant  with  regard  to  autumn  coloring  and  the  introduction  of  flower- 
ing trees. — The  cheerful  appearance  of  flowering  trees  should  be  made  a 
point  of  attraction  in  any  arrangement  of  groups  or  masses.    These  can 
be  introduced  under  any  system,  as  they  are  mainly  trees  of  the  third 
class,  such  as  dogwood,  Judas  tree,  Virginia  fringe,  silver  bell,  etc. 
Their  appropriate  position  is  on  the  margin  of  groups,  and  an  occa- 
sional dogwood  planted  where  its  white  flowers  will  be  displayed 
against  a  darker  color  of  evergreen  will  brighten  the  early  summer 
scenery.    The  dwarfer  growths  of  spirceas ,/ 'or sythias,  deutzias,  cydonias, 
and  other  species  of  flowering  shrubbery  may  be  so  introduced,  with 
the  finest  effect. 

Iu  arranging  trees  for  the  purpose  of  producing  strong  contrasts 


37 

from  tlie  changing  colors  of  autumn  foliage  there  is  a  wide  field  for  the 
artist. 

The  most  conspicuous  colors  are  the  scarlet  of  the  sour  gum,  red 
maple,  wild  cherry,  and  some  of  the  oaks,  and  the  yellow  of  the  hick- 
ories, tulip  tree,  sugar  maple,  and  others.  The  dogwood  and  sassafras 
are  also  decided  in  their  fall  colorings. 

The  beauty  of  groups  will  greatly  depend  upon  their  definiteness, 
distinction,  and  separation  by  expansive  open,  green  lawns.  These 
grassy  openings  are  the  lights  of  the  natural  picture,  while  the  trees 
and  vegetation  furnish  the  shade.  The  error  of  too  much  planting  is 
frequent  and  disastrous  in  its  effects.  The  open,  clear,  well-kept  lawn 
should  largely  predominate,  for,  as  Bacon  remarked  300  years  ago, 
"there  is  nothing  more  pleasant  to  the  eye  than  green  grass  kept  finely 
shorn." 

ON  DRAINING  LANDS. 

The  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  draining  is  of  but  little  use  in 
a  climate  where  hot  dry  suns  and  dry  weather  are  so  common  ;  that  in- 
stead of  trying  to  get  rid  of  the  water  we  should  rather  try  to  retain  it; 
but  those  who  reason  in  this  way  do  not  seem  to  be  aware  that  the  pur- 
pose served  by  draining  laud  is  the  removal  of  superfluous  water  only, 
and  not  that  of  extracting  all  the  available  moisture  which  it  contains. 
Every  variety  of  soil  has  its  relative  degree  of  porosity  or  power  of  re- 
taining moisture.  Peaty  or  mossy  soils,  which  are  mainly  composed  of 
organic  matter  in  different  stages  of  decomposition,  are  very  porous, 
and  in  consequence  absorb  water  readily  and  in  great  quantities.  Clay 
soils,  on  the  other  hand,  being  close  and  compact,  absorb  water  slowly 
and  to  a  limited  degree  as  compared  with  the  first  mentioned.  Draining 
a  peaty  soil  will  not  deprive  it  of  porosity.  It  may  be  likened  to  a  sponge, 
which  will  retain  all  the  water  which  may  be  poured  on  it  until  its 
pores  become  filled;  afterwards  the  water  will  drop  from  it  as  fast  as  it 
is  poured  on.  So  it  is  with  draining  soil;  no  water  will  escape  by  the 
drains  until  the  soil  is  saturated  and  is  unable  to  contain  any  more; 
then  the  superfluous  water  passes  off  by  the  drains,  leaving  the  land 
always  in  a  condition  for  healthy  plant  growth,  which  is  completely 
reversed  when  the  superfluous  water  is  only  removed  by  the  slow  and 
chilling  process  of  surface  evaporation. 

Clay  soils  can  not  be  cropped  to  their  best  advantage  until  they  are 
drained.  The  ordinary  operation  of  plowing  has  a  tendency  to  form  a 
hard  surface  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  which  in  time  becomes  com- 
pacted and  acts  as  a  basin  holding  water.  Soils  of  this  kind  are  well 
designated  as  cold.  The  heat  of  the  sun  can  not  warm  the  soil  until 
the  water  is  first  removed  by  evaporation,  a  process  which  produces 
cold ;  so  that,  in  addition  to  the  impracticability  of  putting  in  crops  early 
in  spring,  every  heavy  summer  rain  cools  the  earth,  and  the  plants 


38 

growing  in  it  receive  a  series  of  checks  iii  their  progress  towards  matu- 
rity.   Draining  removes  all  these  evil  consequences. 

Briefly,  it  may  be  stated  that  some  of  the  advantages  of  draining  are 
the  removal  of  superfluous  water  from  the  soil,  thus  keeping  the  tem- 
perature of  the  earth  near  the  surface  at  its  normal  state.  This  makes 
early  planting  possible,  and  hastens  the  growth  of  the  crops;  it  equal- 
izes the  temperature  of  the  land;  it  equalizes  the  moisture  of  the  soil, 
and  growing  plants  are  thus,  to  a  great  degree,  exempted  from  the 
evils  which  follow  either  deficiency  or  excess  of  rainfall ;  the  roots  of 
plants  are  more  generously  supplied  with  soluble  food  carried  down  by 
rains;  the  formation  of  plant  food  is  increased  by  admission  of  air  to 
the  soil;  the  land  is  more  economically  worked,  and  cultivation  suffers 
less  interruption  at  all  seasons,  and,  as  a  consequence,  crops  are  in- 
creased to  their  maximum  production,  at  least  so  far  as  they  are  de- 
pendent upon  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  a  factor  of  equal  impor- 
tance with  that  of  its  chemical  constitution,  and  one  which  is  greatly 
underestimated. 


SOWING  SEEDS  AND  KAISING  YOUNG  PLANTS  OF  FOEEST 

TREES. 

Seeds  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  practicable  after  they  are  ripe. 
They  will  vegetate  sooner  if  sown  immediately  after  being  gathered 
from  the  plant  than  they  will  at  any  other  time.  Exposure  to  the  air 
hardens  their  outside  coverings,  which  tends  to  prevent  germination, 
so  that  the  time  required  for  a  seed  to  germinate  after  being  sown  de- 
pends greatly  upon  the  amount  of  drying  and  exposure  to  the  air  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected  since  gathered  from  the  plant.  But  it  is 
not  always  practicable  or  convenient  to  sow  seeds  immediately  after 
they  are  gathered.  Some  ripen  so  late  in  the  season  that  they  can  not 
be  sown  immediately  on  account  of  frost;  therefore  the  alternative  is  to 
preserve  them  in  the  best  manner  to  retain  their  vitality  and  facilitate 
speedy  germination  when  sown.  Among  those  which  do  best  when 
sown  in  the  fall  are  the  seeds  of  the  peach,  cherry,  chestnut,  hazelnut, 
walnut,  hickory,  oak,  horse-chestnut,  Judas  tree,  hackberry,  yellow 
locust,  Osage  orange,  and  the  magnolia.  These  mostly  form  very  hard 
shells  when  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  length  of  time,  and  are  afterwards 
very  slow  to  vegetate.  If  they  have  to  be  kept  over  winter  for  spring 
sowing  they  should  be  kept  from  the  air  by  mixing  them  with  dry  sand, 
and  kept  in  a  cool,  ventilated  shed  or  cellar.  If  kept  damp  and  warm 
they  will  either  vegetate  prematurely  or  decay.  Acorns  are  specially 
liable  to  lose  their  vegetative  power  by  exposure  to  dry  air.  They  can 
be  best  preserved  by  spreading  them  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  in 
the  open  air  and  covering  them  with  1  or  2  inches  of  light  soil  or  sand, 
but  no  water  should  be  allowed  to  lodge  around  them,  otherwise  decay 
is  certain. 


39 

There  are  some  seeds  that  ripen  early  in  summer  and  will  not  keep 
well,  consequently  have  to  be  sown  immediately  when  gathered  so  that 
the  young  plants  may  attain  some  size  and  strength  before  winter.  Of 
these  the  silver  maple,  elm,  and  poplar  may  be  mentioned.  Silver- 
maple  seed  is  usually  ripe  in  May,  and  if  then  sown  young  plants  from 
2  to  4  feet  in  height  will  be  produced  before  winter. 

Small  see' Is,  and  those  which  are  light  and  chaffy,  such  as  seeds  of 
the  alder,  birch,  sycamore,  paulownia,  mulberry,  and  tulip  tree,  as 
also  some  of  the  later-ripening  winged  seeds,  as  the  sugar  maple, 
negundo,  and  the  species  of  ash,  should  be  gathered  when  ripe,  and 
spread  thinly  in  an  airy,  shady  situation  to  partially  dry,  then  stored 
in  coarse  bags  in  a  cool  place  until  wanted  for  sowing  in  spring.  Larch, 
pine,  and  seeds  of  coniferous  plants  generally  should  be  kept  in  a 
similar  manner  during  winter.  Seeds  of  the  tulip  tree  should  be  sown 
very  thickly,  as  they  are  mostly  very  imperfect. 

To  succeed  in  raising  healthy  plants  it  is  essentially  necessary  that 
the  seed  should  be  sown  in  deeply  worked  loamy  soil.  It  should  not 
only  be  deeply  pulverized,  but  also  as  rich  and  fertile  as  it  can  be  made. 
No  half-way  measures  should  be  tolerated  in  a  thoroughly  good  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil ;  as  a  general  rule  there  is  altogether  too  little  account 
made  of  this  greatest  source  of  success,  and  numerous  failures  at  rais- 
ing plants  from  seeds  are  clearly  traced  to  the  use  of  poor,  thin  soil, 
while  the  want  of  success  is  attributed  to  the  poor  quality  of  the  seeds, 
or  reflections  are  cast  upon  the  reliability  and  good  faith  oftho.se  who  fur- 
nished them.  The  most  convenient  method  for  after  culture  is  to  sow  in 
drills.  The  distance  between  the  drills  will  be  guided  by  circumstances. 
If  hand  culture  only  is  to  be  employed,  18  inches  apart  will  be  a  good  dis- 
tance for  most  tree  seeds,  although  some  of  the  finer  or  smaller  kinds  and 
such  as  require  several  years'  growth  before  the  plants  become  large 
enough  for  removal  may  be  placed  closer.  All  the  pine  family  belong 
to  this  class.  The  depth  of  covering  will  also  be  regulated  by  the  size 
of  the  seed  and  to  some  extent  to  the  kind  of  soil  and  the  situation.  On 
sandy  soils  the  covering  may  be  deeper  than  when  the  soil  is  liable  to 
form  a  crust  on  the  surface  after  rains.  This  character  of  the  soil  is 
not  well  fitted  for  raising  young  plants  in  dry  climates,  unless  rains 
can  be  prevented  from  beating  on  the  surface  immediately  above  the 
seeds.  Acorns  and  the  larger  kinds  of  nuts  should  be  covered  with 
about  2  inches  of  soil,  and  if  this  covering  is  composed  of  light  mold 
and  sand,  somewhat  firmly  pressed  over  the  seeds,  moisture  will  be 
secured  more  uniformly,  and  the  young  shoots  will  meet  with  no  im- 
pediment in  their  growth  ;  a  slight  covering  of  short  straw  or  chaff  may 
be  used  to  great  advantage  if  carefully  removed  after  vegetation  has 
started.  Chaff  is  an  admirable  covering  for  seeds,  and  only  the  most 
slender  growths  will  require  its  removal. 

Light  and  small  seeds,  such  as  those  of  the  birch,  catalpa,  paulow- 
nia, and  mulberry,  should  be  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  which  is 


40 

afterwards  raked  evenly  and  smoothly  without  disturbing  the;  regularity 
of  the  seeds,  and  this  will  afford  sufficient  covering.  By  passing  a  light 
wooden  roller  over  the  surface  a  finer  pulverization  will  be  given,  and 
the  pressure  will  tend  to  preserve  the  moisture  of  the  soil  from  rapid 
evaporation.  A.  finely  pulverized,  firm  surface  acts  as  a  substitute  for 
mulching. 

The  ordinary  care  given  to  crops,  such  as  weeding,  hoeing,  or  merely 
loosening  the  surface,  will  be  necessary  when  the  young  plants  appear 
above  the  soil,  so  as  to  encourage  their  growth.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  hand  cultivators  now  in  use  which  answer  an  admirable  pur- 
pose in  removing  weeds  from  young  plants  that  are  iu  drills,  especially 
on  light  soils,  and  even  on  tenacious  soils  they  can  be  used  to  advantage 
when  the  soil  is  softened  from  previous  rains;  but  judgment  is  required 
in  selecting  the  best  time  to  work  on  these  soils;  if  tramped  upon  when 
wet  they  become  caked  and  lumpy;  on  the  other  hand,  when  stirred  at 
the  proper  time  they  ean  be  finely  pulverized. 

Very  small  seeds  can  be  sown  in  boxes  and  covered  with  glass,  or 
otherwise  protected  against  rapid  evaporation.  Such  coverings  may 
be  removed  when  the  young  plants  have  sufficient  roots  to  supply 
moisture  to  the  leaves. 


MAKING  AND  KEEPING  LAWNS. 

To  have  a  perfect  lawn  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  it  properly 
laid  down  to  begin  with.  The  primary  requisite  is  the  proper  prepara- 
tion of  the  ground.  There  is  nothing  that  can  be  done  to  the  soil  with  the 
view  of  making  it  productive  and  in  the  best  condition  for  plant  growth 
that  is  not  necessary  to  be  done  to  soil  intended  to  support  a  permanent 
green  lawn.  Draining,  deep  working,  manuring,  and  thorough  pulver- 
ization are  all  requisites  to  the  best  degree  of  success.  In  preparing  a 
lawn  of  any  great  size,  where  it  is  practicable  to  use  a  plow,  the  work 
should  be  done  with  exact  thoroughness.  It  will  in  all  cases  be  best 
to  work  the  ground  in  autumn  if  it  is  of  a  clayey  character.  It  should 
be  turned  over  as  deeply  as  practicable,  and  a  subsoil  plow  should  follow 
in  each  farrow,  breaking  up  but  not  turning  over  the  subsoil,  nor 
bringing  any  of  it  to  the  surface.  Subsoiling  is  often  so  slovenly  per- 
formed that  it  is  of  but  little  benefit,  but  it  is  of  so  much  importance 
that  special  care  should  be  given  to  its  proper  execution,  so  that  it  be 
someching  more  than  a  mere  scratching  of  the  ground.  In  the  imme- 
diate preparation  of  the  surface  previous  to  seeding  in  spring,  the  ground 
should  again  be  plowed  over  so  as  to  turn  under  any  of  the  poorer  portions 
of  subsoil  which  may  have  been  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  previous 
deep  plowing.  This  is  very  important  where  the  subsoil  is  at  all  of  a 
clayey,  adhesive  nature,  as  a  surface  soil  of  this  character  prevents  the 
uniform  growth  of  the  young  grass  plants,  and  becomes  hard  and  com- 
pact on  the  surface,  destroying  the  grass  even  after  it  has  vegetated. 


41 

Previous  to  this  shallow  plowing  a  dressing  of  barnyard  manure  should 
be  spread  on  the  surface  and  covered.  This  may  be  substituted  by  an 
application  of  bone  fertilizer  of  not  less  than  500  pounds  to  the  acre, 
harrowed  in  just  before  sowing.  After  sowing,  a  light  harrow  should 
be  run  over  it.  followed  by  a  roller  to  press  the  seed  into  the  soil,  but 
no  rolling  should  be  given  to  clayey  land  unless  it  is  thoroughly  surface 
dry  at  the  time. 

The  one  best  grass  for  a  permanent  lawn  is  the  blue  grass  (Poa  pra- 
tensis},  and  under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  weather  no  addition 
is  needed.  But  the  seed  of  this  grass  is  rather  slow  to  vegetate  and,  if  the 
surface  becomes  hard  and  compact  before  the  young  plants  make  their 
appearance  there  will  be  much  loss.  The  best  general  mixture,  after 
various  trials  with  other  kinds  and  mixtures  of  grasses,  is  to  mix  2 
bushels  of  blue  grass,  1  bushel  of  red  top  (Agrostisvulgaris),  and  1  quart 
timothy  (Phleum  pratense)  for  1  acre.  This  is  a  heavy  seeding,  but  ex- 
periments show  that  there  is  a  gain  in  rapidly  securing  a  thick  sod  by 
seeding  thus  heavily.  Some  prefer  to  add  about  1  pound  of  white  clover 
to  the  above,  which  may  assist  in  forming  a  dense  lawn,  but  the  best 
lawns  are  those  in  which  white  clover  is  not  to  be  found.  The  practice 
of  sowing  oats,  barley,  or  other  grains  with  the  grass  seeds,  under  the 
impression  that  these  latter  plants  will  protect  and  foster  the  young 
grass  plants  from  sun  and  drought,  is  altogether  wrong  and  ruinous  to 
a  young  lawn.  It  may  be  asserted  that  no  good  lawn  was  ever  pro- 
duced in  one  year  where  graiu  crops  are  sown  with  the  grasses.  Yet  the 
practice  is  continued,  and  continued  disappointments  follow.  When 
the  mixture  of  grasses  just  given  is  sown  in  a  proper  manner  about  the 
early  part  of  spring,  the  grass  will  be  ready  for  the  lawn-mower  by  the 
middle  of  June;  after  two  or  three  weekly  cuttings  the  lawn  will  have 
the  thickness  and  appearance  of  old  sod.  But  when  the  oats  are  sown, 
they  will  be  cut  over  once  or  twice  until  their  stubble  dies,  and  the  few 
weak  grass  plants  which  have  struggled  into  existence  will  succumb  to  a 
week  of  dry,  sunny  weather ;  then  weeds  take  the  place  of  grass,  and  the 
lawn  will  have  to  be  renewed  by  additional  sowings.  While  it  is  true 
that  a  good  lawn  can  not  be  produced  unless  everything  has  been  prop- 
erly prepared,  it  is  equally  true  that  a  good  lawn  can  not  be  maintained 
without  proper  attention  to  mowing  and  fertilizing.  Lawn-mowing 
machines  are  now  so  cheap  and  efficient  that  the  cutting  of  the  lawn  is 
merely  a  mechanical  operation,  and  one  requiring  but  little  skill  in  its 
performance,  and  the  numerous  fine  lawns  now  everywhere  to  be  seen 
are,  in  a  great  degree,  due  to  the  introduction  of  these  machines. 

When  a  lawn  becomes  thin  and  the  growth  of  the  grass  declining  in 
vigor,  the  best  treatment  is  to  apply  a  heavy  dressing  of  well-rotted 
stable  manure  during  the  latter  part  of  December.  'It  is  important  that 
manure  for  this  purpose  should  be  well  rotted  before  being  used,  and 
as  occasion  offers  during  winter  it  should  be  broken  up  and  harrowed 
or  raked,  so  as  to  distribute  it  equally  over  the  surface  and  settle  down 


42 

and  nourish  the  grass.  When  spring  opens,  all  the  rough  and  strawy 
portions  should  be  removed;  otherwise  it  will  interfere  with  the  action 
of  the  mower. 

Bone-meal  is  one  of  the  best  applications  that  can  be  given  to  a  lawn. 
The  practice  of  allowing  the  cuttings  from  the  mowing  machine  to  re- 
main on  the  lawn  is,  upon  the  whole,  very  injurious.  With  newly- 
formed  lawns  it  is  of  some  value  for  one  or  two  cuttings;  after  that  it 
tends  to  injury. 

SPKING  AND  FALL  PLANTING  OF  TKEES. 

The  relative  advantages  of  spring  and  fall  planting  have  given  rise 
to  many  opinions,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  a  wide  difference  in  opin- 
ion should  be  held  on  the  question,  since  so  much  of  success  or  failure 
depends  upon  the  season,  locality,  and  other  attendant  circumstances. 
The  influencing  agents  of  vegetation  are  subject  to  such  vast  variety 
of  modifications,  which  can  neither  be  foreseen  nor  prevented,  that  no 
isolated  observation,  however  truthfully  noted,  will  suffice  as  a  guide  in 
establishing  definite  rules;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  many 
seemingly  conflicting  opinions  upon  certain  points  of  practice  could,  in 
most  instances,  be  reconciled  if  all  attending  facts  and  circumstances 
were  clearly  produced,  but  these  items  are  difficult  to  obtain. 

Perhaps  the  strongest  argument  in  favor  of  fall  planting  is  the  par- 
ticularly favorable  peculiarities  in  the  relative  conditions  of  the  soil  and 
the  atmosphere  at  that  season.  Independent  of  this,  it  is  theoretically 
true  that  autumn  is  the  best  time  for  removing  trees.  A  plant  that  has 
occupied  its  position  for  several  years  can  not  be  removed  without  cur- 
tailing and  injuring  its  roots  more  or  less,  but  there  are  certain  portions 
of  the  year  when  the  roots  are  of  a  minimum  importance  to  the  plant. 
It  is  very  evident  that  they  are  most  essential  when  the  tree  is  in  full 
foliage  and  vigorous  growth,  and  during  this  period  any  reduction  of 
roots  would  be  speedily  perceptible;  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  sea- 
sonable growth  is  completed  and  the  plant  defoliated,  the  offices  of  the 
roots  are  less  important.  From  the  above  we  learn  that  the  best  time 
to  transplant  is  between  the  fall  of  the  leaves  in  autumn  and  the  burst- 
ing of  the  buds  into  growth  in  the  spring  or  during  what  is  termed  the 
dormant  season. 

The  "  particularly  favorable  conditions  of  the  soil  and  air"  may  now 
be  noted.  During  the  month  of  October  the  soil  averages  10°  warmer 
than  the  atmosphere.  This  forms  a  species  of  natural  Lot  bed  into 
which  we  place  a  newly  removed  tree,  the  formation  of  young  roots  is 
encouraged,  and  before  many  weeks  elapse  the  plant  is  well  established 
to  withstand  the  vicissitudes  of  winter  and  make  an  earty  and  vigorous 
start  in  the  following  spring.  The  low  atmospheric  temperature  pre- 
vents any  growth  in  the  branches,  which  is  so  far  favorable  under  the 
circumstances. 

In  spring  we  find  these  physical  conditions  reversed ;  the  soil  is  then 


43 

cold,  and  accumulates  heat  slowly  while  the  air  rapidly  increases  in 
warmth;  the  buds  are  excited  to  growth,  new  leaves  are  formed  in  ad- 
vance of  the  roots,  each  leaf  acts  as  a  pump  extracting  sap  from  the 
branches  and  trunk  of  the  tree,  which  as  yet  has  no  active  roots  to 
supply  the  demand ;  and  if  evaporation  is  severe  and  continued,  the 
plant  must  either  succumb  or  receive  such  a  check  as  will  require  the 
whole  season  to  recover.  Hence  it  may  frequently  be  observed  that 
spring-planted  trees  will  show  a  profusion  of  leaves,  apparently  vigor- 
ous and  healthy,  but  suddenly  wither  and  decay  under  the  influence  of 
clear,  dry,  and  warm  weather. 

These,  so  far,  show  great  ad  vantages 'in  favor  of  fall  planting,  but 
there  are  other  considerations  to  be  canvassed  before  deciding  the  ques- 
tion. It  is  very  clear  that  unless  planting  is  performed  within  a  certain 
period  the  advantage  of  immediate  root-growth  will  not  be  secured;  if 
delayed  beyond  the  first  week  in  November,  success  will  be  less  certain. 
The  best  period  is  undoubtedly  as  soon  as  the  leaves  change  color,  strip- 
ping off  the  foliage  before  removal. 

The  character  of  the  soil  and  location  will  also  materially  influence 
success.  In  undraiued  clayey  soils  the  trees  may  not  get  sufficient 
root  hold  to  enable  them  to  resist  the  throwing-out  tendency  of  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing,  or  the  young  spongioles  may  be  destroyed  by 
constant  saturation.  Again,  in  very  bleak  and  exposed  localities  the 
drying  winds  of  spring  may  exhaust  the  juices  faster  than  the  young 
roots  can  supply  the  demands  of  evaporation.  Of  course  the  very  evi- 
dent precaution  of  securing  the  plant  from  swaying  should  be  attended 
to;  otherwise  many  of  the  young  rootlets  will  be  twisted  off.  Staking 
may  have  to  be  done  where  the  trees  are  tall,  but  it  is  much  pref- 
erable to  stay  them  with  a  slight  mound  of  soil  over  the  roots,  which 
can  be  removed  when  of  no  further  use.  It  will  also  be  of  great  benefit 
if  the  frost  can  be  kept  from  penetrating  to  the  roots.  A  covering  of 
loose  material  will  be  a  protection,  a  wise  precaution,  even  on  well-es- 
tablished trees. 

In  northern  latitudes,  where  the  winters  commence  early  and  continue 
long  and  severe,  fall  planting  will  not  so  generally  be  successful  as  in 
more  temperate  regions,  except  in  particularly  favorable  localities. 
Early  spring  planting,  taking  the  precaution  to  prune  the  branches,  so 
as  to  restore  the  balance  destroyed  by  the  root  mutilation  inseparable 
from  removals,  and  mulching  over  the  roots,  so  as  to  retain  moisture 
during  summer,  will  be  the  most  likely  auxiliaries  towards  success. 

Evergreens  can,  in  all  cases,  be  most  successfully  transplanted  just 
as  growth  commences.  When  the  young  shoots  exhibit  symptoms  of 
pushing,  they  can  be  removed  without  risk  0f  failure  with  ordinary 
care.  They  may  also  be  removed  in  August  and  September,  so  that 
they  can  have  a  good  season  to  furnish  new  roots  before  winter.  Early 
spring  removal  of  such  trees  is  not  advisable,  as  they  have  a  large 
evaporating  surface,  which,  when  subjected  to  drying  spring  winds,  re- 
quires a  constant  action  of  root  to  maintain  life. 


44 


KEEPING  HEDGES. 

One  of  the  principal  objections  urged  against  the  employment  of  live 
fences  or  hedges  is  the  cost  of  keeping  them  in  efficient  repair,  for  it 
admits  of  no  qualification  that  unless  they  receive  proper  attention 
they  will  prove  to  be  of  but  little  value  as  a  fence  against  live  stock. 

Unfortunately,  our  best  hedge  plants  so  far  are  of  strong  growth,  es- 
pecially when  young,  and  consequently  require  to  be  trimmed  two  or 
three  times  during  the  summer,  at  least  for  several  years  after  plant- 
ing, and  this  at  a  time  when  farm  crops  demand  attention,  so  that  in  a 
vast  number  of  cases  the  hedge  is  neglected  and  soon  ceases  to  be  serv- 
iceable. The  best  hedge  plant  is  one  that  could  be  kept  by  winter 
trimming  only,  because  in  that  season  of  comparative  leisure  it  would 
probably  receive  attention,  but  with  such  strong  growing  plants  as  the 
osage  orange  and  honey  locust,  our  two  popular  hedge  plants,  it  is 
impracticable  to  produce  a  close  fence  without  frequent  summer  trim- 
mings. There  is  one  thing,  however,  which  should  be  put  to  their 
credit,  that  after  a  few  years  the  growth  will  be  less  profuse;  the  weak- 
ening effect  of  continued  summer  pruning  ultimately  weakens  the 
plants,  so  that  they  become  easier  managed.  This  also  prevents  them 
from  sending  out  their  roots  to  a  great  distance,  so  that  they  do  not  in- 
terfere with  cultivated  crops,  an  evil  which  soon  becomes  visible  when 
a  hedge  is  neglected  and  allowed  to  take  care  of  itself.  When  a  hedge 
gets  into  a  condition  that  one  summer  trimming  and  one  winter  trim- 
ming will  keep  it  in  fairly  good  condition,  the  labor  and  cost  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimum.  It  will  also  have  a  tendency  to  retard  the  ex- 
uberance of  early  summer  growth,  if  the  winter  trimming  is  delayed 
until  after  the  buds  begin  to  push  in  spring.  This  will  make  a  differ- 
ence of  several  weeks  in  regard  to  summer  trimming,  and  will  prove  of 
some  importance  when  summer  pruning  is  confined  to  one  operation. 

The  weakest  part  of  a  hedge  is  always  nearest  the  ground.  The  cri- 
terion of  a  well-kept  hedge  is  that  of  thickness  at  the  bottom ;  this 
should  also  be  its  widest  part,  and  it  should  taper  upwards  to  a  point. 
Unless  this  form  is  strictly  maintained,  the  lower  branches  will  grad- 
ually weaken  and  ultimately  die  out,  leaving  gaps  which  are  not  easily 
closed.  Hedges  which  become  weak  and  full  of  gaps  through  neglect 
may  be  renewed  by  cutting  them  down  in  early  winter  to  within  18 
inches  or  so  from  the  ground ;  the  plants  will  then  branch  out  vigor- 
ously, and,  by  proper  pruning,  soon  be  all  that  need  be  desired  as  a 
fence. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  great  aim  of  all  thorough  cultivators  is  to  maintain  a  continued 
healthy  and  vigorous  growth  from  the  period  the  seed  vegetates  until 
the  plant  reaches  its  maturity.  The  word  "  cultivation  "  may  be  defined 
as  a  term  whereby  we  recognize  those  operations  necessary  to  maintain 


a  constant  and  proper  equilibrium  of  the  elements  01  plant  growth. 
Therefore,  in  order  that  we  should  be  able  to  do  so  understaudingly,  it 
is  absolutely  necessary  that  we  be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  prin- 
ciples governing  vegetable  growth.  In  the  absence  of  such  knowledge 
practice  is  merely  empirical. 

One  of  the  prominent  operations  in  culture  is  that  of  stirring  the 
surface  of  the  soil  around  growing  crops.  The  soil  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  laboratory  of  nature,  where  her  decomposing  agencies,  air 
and  water,  prepare  the  food  of  plants,  and  the  object  of  culture  is  to 
facilitate  these  chemical  operations  as  far  as  our  knowledge  will  admit; 
and  experience  fully  proves  that  frequent  forking,  loosening,  or  stirring 
the  surface  stratum  of  the  soil,  thus  allowing  an  unimpeded  access  of 
air  and  moisture  to  penetrate  and  follow  the  various  ramifications  of 
plant  roots,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  essential  item  in  what  is  termed 
cultivation. 

The  efficacy  of  this  treatment  depends,  however,  upon  the  nature  and 
condition  of  the  soil,  as  also  upon  the  time  and  mode  of  performing 
the  operation.  Unless  the  subsoil  is  also  porous  and  permeable,  its 
benefits  will  be  comparatively  slight.  Hence  soils  that  are  not  natu- 
rally pervious  must  be  rendered  so  by  draining  and  subsoiling. 

Soils  so  treated  will  continue  to  support  vegetation  in  a  healthy  and 
luxuriant  growth  even  in  long-continued  dry  seasons.  This  is  owing 
to  the  facility  with  which  the  rain  water  can  penetrate  deeply,  its 
downward  passage  being  encouraged  by  the  admission  of  air,  and 
when,  in  addition  to  drainage,  the  surface  is  kept  loose  and  open,  the 
rains  of  a  heavy  shower  penetrate  at  once  instead  of  passing  off  on  the 
surface,  as  will  be  the  case  when  the  top  soil  is  compact  and  the  sub- 
soil undisturbed.  Clayey  and  tenacious  soils  require  more  careful 
treatment  than  those  of  a  gravelly  or  sandy  character;  these  are  liable 
to  become  hardened  on  the  surface  after  even  slight  showers.  This  is 
occasioned  by  their  easy  solubility,  and  good  management  of  such  soils 
demand  that  they  should  be  surface- stirred  after  every  heavy  rain. 
Much  now  depends  upon  the  time  such  stirring  is  performed.  Between 
the  softening  of  JtFie  surface  by  rains  and  its  hardening  again  by  sun 
and  dry  air  there  is  a  period  when  it  is  in  the  most  favorable  condition 
for  culture.  Here  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  a  definite  rule,  as  the  prac- 
tice that  would  be  suitable  for  one  soil  and  climate  would  be  unsuited 
to  another  differently  circumstanced.  The  principle  being  understood, 
the  practice  may  readily  be  deduced.  In  order  to  facilitate  cultivation 
all  crops  should  be  grown  as  far  as  practicable  on  the  drill  system. 

There  is  room  for  improvement  in  this  respect,  especially  in  garden 
culture.  Garden  crops  should  invariably  be  grown  in.  drills  suffici- 
ently wide  apart  to  admit  of  deep  hoeing  and  forking.  And  it  may  be  fur- 
therremarked  that  there  is  a  wide  distinction  between  what  is  frequently 
termed  a  well-kept  garden  and  one  that  is  well  cultivated.  The  former 
may  be  kept  perfectly  clear  of  weeds  by  tUe  use  of  the  lioe  and  rake, 


46 

every  spot  smooth  and  polished,  and  although  vegetation  may  wilt  and 
present  a  starved  and  stunted  aspect,  yet  many  people  would  pronounce 
such  gardening  as  perfect.  This,  however,  is  not  cultivation.  Hoeing, 
as  understood  by  a  thorough  culturist,  means  more  than  merely  killing 
weeds.  He  aims  at  having  the  soil  deeply  and  thorougly  broken  up, 
and  left  loose,  rough,  and  untramped.  His  criterion  oi  beauty  here  is 
not  influenced  by  the  element  of  smoothness. 

MECHANICAL  PEEPAEATION  OF  SOIL. 

The  physical  or  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  its  relation  to  air 
and  water,  has  not  received  the  attention  from  agricultural  chemists 
which  its  importance  demands.  They  have  devoted  their  investiga- 
tions almost  solely  to  its  chemical  constituents,  seeming  to  lose  sight  of 
the  fact  that  the  permeability  of  the  soil  to  atmospheric  influences  is  of 
more  importance  than  the  most  approved  manures.  If  half  the  money 
that  has  been  expended  upon  artificial  manures  during  the  last  twenty 
years  had  been  devoted  to  drainage,  subsoiling,  and  trenching,  the 
products  of  the  country  would  have  been  vastly  increased. 

The  soil  performs  various  offices  towards  growth  of  plants.  It  serves 
as  a  basis  in  which  they  may  fix  their  roots  and  sustain  themselves  in 
position ;  it  also  supplies  inorganic  food  during  all  periods  of  their 
growth,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  laboratory  in  which  many  chemic 
changes  are  taking  place;  preparing  the  various  kinds  of  food  which  it 
is  destined  to  yield  to  the  growing  plant.  Analyses  have  shown  that 
in  most  soils  the  presence  of  all  the  constituents  of  the  ashes  of  plants 
may  be  detected,  though  in  variable  proportions.  But  the  mere  pres- 
ence of  certain  substances  in  soils  does  not  insure  productiveness,  for 
it  has  been  shown  that  crops  have  failed  even  in  soils  possessing  all  the 
mineral  ingredients  required,  because,  although  present,  they  were  not 
in  a  sufficiently  soluble  state  to  be  available.  Thus  in  wet,  clayey 
soils,  although  containing  enough  of  plant  food,  the  water  prevents 
free  access  to  the  decomposing  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  crops 
perish,  not  because  of  a  deficiency  of  raw  material,  but  on  account  of 
the  processes  for  its  preparation  being  arrested. 

This  leads  to  the  foundation  of  all  improvements  of  such  soils,  viz, 
draining.  It  is  a  remark  frequently  made  by  those  having  no  expe- 
rience that  draining  must  be  worse  than  useless  in  a  climate  where 
summer  droughts  are  among  the  greatest  calamities  against  which  the 
cultivator  has  to  contend.  All  who  have  witnessed  the  effects  of 
draining  need  not  be  told  that  even  in  soils  not  particularly  retentive, 
draining,  in  connection  with  deep  culture,  will  secure  a  more  ample  and 
lasting  supply  of  moisture  in  dry  weather  and  maintain  a  growing 
vegetation  during  the  most  severe  droughts.  Draining  increases  the 
capability  of  the  soil  for  absorbing  moisture ;  all  soils  have  their  cer- 
tain absorbing  properties ;  like  a  sponge,  they  absorb  until  their  pores 


47 

are  filled,  and  only  the  superfluous  water  that  can  not  be  taken  up  passes 
through  the  drains. 

Draining  is  only  the  first  step  towards  improvement.  The  soil  must 
be  deeply  loosened  and  pulverized,  either  by  subsoiling  or  trenching. 
Either  process  will  be  beneficial,  and  circumstances  will  decide  as  to 
which  is  to  be  adopted.  Trenching  involves  a  thorough  reversion  of  the 
soil  of  more  or  less  depth,  according  to  its  nature  and  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  to  be  used.  Subsoiling  is  merely  a  loosening  or  stirring  up  of 
the  immediate  subsoil  without  reversing  its  position.  When  the  ground 
is  intended  for  a  permanent  crop,  such  as  fruit  trees,  grapevines,  etc., 
trenching  may  be  adopted.  The  top  surface  of  good  soil  will  then  be 
placed  where  the  roots  will  be  immediately  benefited  by  it  and  the  crude 
subsoil  brought  to  the  surface,  where  it  can  be  enriched  by  the  aid  of 
manures  and  the  ameliorating  processes  of  cultivation. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  ground  is  to  be  immediately  cropped  with 
small  seeds,  as  in  some  portions  of  a  vegetable  garden,  a  finely  pulver- 
ized surface  is  necessary,  and  few  subsoils  can  be  made  available  or  be 
reduced  to  that  condition  while  in  their  crude  state.  Subsoiling  will, 
in  such  cases,  be  most  advisable,  and  trenching  can  be  executed  as 
crops  will  admit  of  the  operation. 

The  first  process,  then,  towards  securing  a  profitable  depth  of  soil  is 
draining;  next,  breaking  into  the  subsoil,  taking  into  consideration 
whether,  in  vie^  of  the  crops  to  be  cultivated,  it  will  be  most  immedi- 
ately profitable  (of  ultimate  profit  there  is  no  uncertainty)  to  trench  it 
at  once  or  merely  break  up  and  loosen  the  subsoil,  admitting  water  and 
other  fertilizing  agencies  to  penetrate,  and  by  a  gradual  trenching  im- 
prove to  the  required  depth.  When  all  this  has  been  satisfactorily 
accomplished  manures  can  be  applied  to  the  greatest  advantage  and 
failures  from  droughts  almost  entirely  obviated. 

MULCHING. 

This  is  an  auxiliary  operation  in  cultivation  that  would  be  more  gener- 
ally practiced  if  its  beneficial  effects  were  better  understood. 

The  objects  to  be  obtained  by  mulching  are  twofold,  viz,  to  preserve 
a  uniform  degree  of  moisture  in  the  soil  during  summer,  and  to  protect 
the  roots  of  plants  from  severe  frosts  during  winter.  These  conditions 
are  obviously  important  to  vegetation,  and  they  can  be  very  efficiently 
secured  by  covering  the  surface  with  a  stratum  of  porous  materials, 
such  as  tan  bark,  charcoal  dust,  leaves,  or  strawy  manure,  which  will 
prevent  the  surface  soil  from  becoming  compact  or  hard,  and  at  the  same 
time  assist  in  maintaining  a  uniformity  in  its  mechanical  texture  favor- 
able to  the  retention  of  moisture.  Air  is  the  best  nonconductor,  and 
bodies  are  represented  as  good  or  bad  conductors  just  as  they  are  solid 
or  porous.  Iron  is  a  better  conductor  than  wood,  granite  stone  a  better 
conductor  than  brick,  hard-pressed  soil  is  a  better  conductor  than  soil 


48 

that  is  loose  and  porous.  A  hard  trodden  path  is  warmer  in  summer 
and  colder  in  winter  than  the  cultivated  ground  alongside  of  it.  When 
the  soil  particles  are  in  pressed  contact,  the  condition  is  favorable  to 
rapid  conduction  ;  summer  winds  passing  over  such  a  surface  carry  off 
the  moisture  which  the  heat  evaporates,  the  surface  is  speedily  parched 
dry,  and  vegetation  languishes. 

When  the  surface  is  covered  with  a  mulch  of  such  porous  materials 
as  those  enumerated  it  in  effect  secures  a  stratum  of  air  in  repose  be- 
tween the  soil  and  the  causes  of  radiation  and  evaporation.  In  the  case 
of  recently  planted  trees,  the  preservation  of  a  uniform  degree  of  mois- 
ture in  the  soil  surrounding  their  roots  is  a  great  point  towards  their 
successful  growth,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  they  will  languish 
or  flourish  in  proportion  as  this  condition  of  uniform  moisture  is  secured. 

Although  muclhing  is  a  very  simple  operation,  yet  serious  losses  have 
occurred  from  its  misapplication.  We  have  seen  trees  destroyed  from 
too  heavy  mulchings  of  grass,  manure,  and  tan  bark.  Before  applying 
the  mulch  to  a  recently  planted  tree,  if  in  spring,  shape  the  soil  around 
it  in  basin  form,  extending  the  rim  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  roots  ; 
by  this  configuration  of  surface  rains  will  be  retained  and,  if  required, 
artificial  waterings  can  be  applied  to  best  advantage.  With  regard  to 
fall  planting,  the  process  should  be  reversed  and  a  slight  mound  formed 
towards  the  stem  of  the  plant,  so  as  to  throw  off  the  heavy  rains  of 
winter.  Of  course  such  mound  should  be  removed  before  the  following 
summer. 

As  already  remarked,  the  principal  use  of  winter  mulching  is  to  pre- 
vent frosts  from  reaching  the  roots.  The  best  material  for  this  purpose 
is  charcoal  dust.  Where  manure  is  used  it  should  not  be  thrown  close 
up  to  the  stem  of  the  plant,  otherwise  it  might  prove  a  harbor  for 
ground  mice,  which  in  rough  ground  or  under  a  coarse  covering  are 
sometimes  very  destructive,  by  eating  the  bark  of  young  trees.  When 
they  are  troublesome  the  precaution  should  be  taken  to  trample  firmly 
over  the  roots  and  around  the  stem  after  heavy  snows  and  keep  the 
surface  dry  and  compact. 

In  order  to  be  effectual  it  is  not  necessary  that  summer  mulching 
should  be  heavy.  When  tan  or  char  coal  dust  is  used  a  layer  of  2  inches 
in  depth  will  be  quite  sufficient.  Grass  cut  from  lawns  is  very  suitable, 
but  a  mere  sprinkling  only  should  be  applied  at  a  time.  Thick  coatings 
promote  fungoid  growths,  which  frequently  destroy  the  trees.  Fruit 
or  ornamental  trees  that  have  been  transplanted  will  rarely  be  much 
benefited  by  mulching  after  the  first  year's  growth.  The  advantage  of 
mulching  to  growing  vegetables  are  equally  important.  Cabbages, 
potatoes,  peas,  onions,  and  other  crops  will  thus  be  enabled  to  main- 
tain growth  during  the  driest  weather.  This  covering  is  not  intended 
to  supersede  stirring  the  soil,  but  when  plants  become  so  far  advanced 
in  growth  as  to  be  beyond  the  hoe  and  plow,  mulching  may  be  applied, 
and  those  wUo  give  it  a  fair  trial  on  their  crops  in  a  dry  season  will  not 
require  further  promptings  to  repeat  the  practice. 


49 


SITUATIONS  FOE  OEOHAEDS. 

From  the  circumstance  that  fruit  orchards  which  are  situated  in  val- 
leys and  in  low,  sheltered  places  are  not  so  healthy  and  prolific,  and 
are  more  liable  to  injury  from  changes  of  temperature  than  those  situ- 
ated in  more  elevated  and  exposed  places,  it  has  been  argued  that  all 
kinds  of  protection  and  shelter  to  fruit  trees  should  be  condemned  as 
injurious,  and  that  the  coldest  and  bleakest  positions  on  northern  slopes 
are  greatly  to  be  preferred  for  fruits.  This  is  probably  going  from  one 
extreme  to  another.  It  is  conceded  that  one  of  the  very  worst  situations 
for  a  fruit  orchard  is  in  the  rich  laud  of  a  contracted,  sheltered  valley, 
for  in  such  a  position  the  trees  are  subjected  to  great  extremes  of  tem- 
perature; a  difference  of  20  degrees  is  not  uncommon  between  the 
temperature  of  the  valley  and  that  of  a  point  on  the  hillside  60  feet 
above  it  during  periods  of  severe  frosts.  It  is  very  evident  that  such  a 
site  would  be  of  the  worst  selection,  and,  so  far  as  topography  is  con- 
cerned, the  elevated  northern  exposure  would  be  greatly  preferable; 
but,  a  sufficiently  elevated  site  once  selected,  it  does  not  follow  that  it 
should  not  be  judiciously  sheltered,  locally,  from  the  exhausting  effects 
of  arid  or  cold  winds.  The  benefits  of  local  shelter  are  well  known,  and 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  evils  which  follow  a  bad  selection,  as 
above  stated. 

OECHAED  PLANTING. 

It  is  a  common  observation  that  the  outer  rows  of  trees  in  established 
orchards  are  finer  and  more  productive  than  the  trees  in  the  interior 
plantation.  This  superiority  is  all  the  more  conspicuous  if  the  orchard 
is  bordered  by  cultivated  fields,  and  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  the  extra 
luxuriance  is  owing  to  the  trees  having  a  greater  extent  of  unoccupied 
soil  for  the  ramification  of  their  roots.  Something  is  also  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  greater  space  available  for  the  expansion  and  spread  of  the 
branches ;  but  it  is  in  accordance  with  all  experience  in  the  cultivation 
of  plants  that  a  rotation  of  crops  is  absolutely  essential  towards  secur- 
ing the  best  results  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Keeping  these  facts  in 
view,  it  is  suggested  that  an  improvement  upon  the  present  method  of 
planting  orchards  would  be  gained  by  planting  two  rows  of  trees  from 
18  to  25  or  more  feet  apart,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  trees, 
and  alternating  the  plants  in  the  rows.  Then  allow  a  space,  varying 
in  extent  from  30ft  feet  to  any  greater  distance,  before  planting  another 
series  of  rows,  and  so  increase  the  plantation  as  far  as  may  be  desired* 
The  intervening  spaces  between  these  double  rows  of  trees  would  be 
available  for  the  cultivation  of  the  ordinary  crops  of  the  farm.  The 
roots  of  the  trees  would  not  only  participate  in  the  benefits  of  cultiva- 
tion, but  would  also  have  practically  unlimited  room  for  extension 
before  meeting  with  other  roots  of  their  kind.  Immediately  under  the. 
285SX 4 


50 

trees  and  for  a  distance  on  each  side  of  the  rows  as  far  as  the  branches 
spread  the  surface  could  be  kept  in  grass.  If  not  sown  down  immedi- 
ately after  planting,  which  might  not  be  desirable  in  all  cases,  it  should 
be  done  after  the  trees  attain  a  fruit-bearing  size,  or  from  five  to  seven 
years  after  setting  out.  The  shelter  which  will  be  afforded  to  other 
crops  by  these  orchards  will  be  found  valuable  as  a  protection  from 
winds  as  well  as  in  forwarding  early  crops.  This  method  is  particularly 
applicable  to  apple  and  pear  trees. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS. 

Whether  the  land  occupied  by  orchard  or  fruit  trees  should  be  plowed 
and  cultivated,  or  sown  in  grass  or  clover  and  remain  undisturbed,  is 
still  a  frequent  subject  of  inquiry  in  the  correspondence  of  the  Depart- 
ment. The  object  in  planting  fruit  trees,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  state, 
is  to  produce  fruit,  and  that  course  of  general  treatment  which  best 
maintains  the  trees  in  a  healthy  state  of  growth  and  at  the  same  time 
keeps  them  in  a  condition  of  productiveness  may  be  considered  as  being 
good,  whether  the  treatment  involves  the  plowing  and  cultivation  of  the 
soil  or  whether  these  good  results  are  attained  by  sowing  the  orchard 
in  grass  and  keeping  the  surface  covered  with  sod.  It  is  well  known 
that  eminently  productive  and  profitable  orchards  can  be  shown  under 
both  of  the  above  systems  of  management,  for  the  time  being.  Culti- 
vation or  noncultivation  are  simply  expedients  to  be  adopted  in  gaining 
certain  wished-for  results  5  the  primary  mistake  is  to  attempt  to  turn 
either  expedient  into  a  fixed  and  unchangeable  system. 

It  is  understood  that  the  processes  generally  included  in  the  term 
"cultivation,"  such  as  plowing,  harrowing,  etc.,  are  all  favorable  to 
the  encouragement  of  growth  in  plants,  and  when  applied  to  fruit  trees 
the  usual  result  of  increased  vigor  will  be  produced.  But  it  is  also 
well  understood  that  the  greatest  vigor  of  growth  is  not  always  com- 
bined with  the  greatest  productiveness  of  fruit ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a 
recognized  fact  that  a  tree  can  not  display  unusually  great  vigor  of 
growth  and  at  the  same  time  be  correspondingly  fruitful.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  common  knowledge  that  trees  growing  in  poor  soil, 
arid  without  receiving  cultivation  of  any  kind,  will  not  long  continue 
to  maintain  sufficient  vitality  to  enable  them  to  produce  perfect  fruit, 
nor,  indeed,  fruit  of  any  quality.  These  extremes  of  poverty  and  lux- 
uriance are  similar,  inasmuch  as  neither  condition  is  the  best  for 
the  production  of  fruit,  and  therefore  the  efforts  of  the  fruit-grower 
should  constantly  be  directed  towards  a  medium  between  these  ex- 
tremes. When  young  trees  are  planted  in  ordinary  good  soil,  aud 
afterwards  receive  good  care,  so  far  as  cultivating,  stirring,  and  ma- 
nuring the  soil  is  concerned,  they  usually  make  strong  growths.  It  is 
well  to  encourage  this  luxuriance  at  this  stage  of  their  existence,  the 


51 

only  precaution  being  to  guard  against  an  immature  condition  of  wood 
when  frosts  occur. 

Mistakes  are  sometimes  made,  in  climates  where  the  season  of  active 
growth  is  comparatively  short,  in  stimulating  the  plants  to  such  a  de- 
gree that  the  wood  fails  to  ripen  thoroughly  and  the  young  shoots  are 
destroyed  by  frosts  while  in  an  immature  state,  giving  rise  to  various 
diseases,  such  as  yellows  in  the  peach,  etc.  When  the  trees  reach  the 
fruit-bearing  size,  but  give  no  evidence  of  fruit-bearing  disposition,  it 
may  be  assumed  that  their  barrenness  is  owing  to  excessive  growth, 
and  it  will  therefore  be  in  order  to  adopt  some  means  of  checking  the 
growth,  and,  as  a  consequence,  induce  the  tree  to  bear  fruit.  Various 
measures  may  be  pursued  to  effect  this  object,  but  perhaps  there  is 
none  so  simple  and  so  easily  applied  as  that  of  laying  the  orchard  in 
grass.  The  absence  of  all  culture  will  speedily  cause  the  formation  of 
fruit  buds  and  satisfactory  crops  of  fruit,  and  so  long  as  this  continues 
no  change  need  be  made  ;  but  if  the  trees  become  weak,  from  over- 
bearing or  from  want  of  nourishment,  top  dressing  of  manure  will 
again  renew  their  vigor  ;  and,  further,  if  the  trees  appear  stunted  and 
do  not  respond  to  surface  stimulants,  the  grass  may  be  plowed  under 
and  a  system  of  thorough  culture  inaugurated  and  kept  up  so  long  as 
observation  determines  that  it  is  the  best  practice  to  follow. 

The  condition  of  the  trees  will,  therefore  be  the  best  evidence  as  to 
whether  the  orchard  should  be  cultivated  or  kept  in  grass.  Each 
orchard  will  answer  the  question  for  itself.  It  is  not  a  question  as  to 
the  advisability  of  establishing  a  system  based  upon  either  expedient, 
although  it  is  usually  and  erroneously  submitted  in  that  shape. 


Pruning  is  an  operation  of  vast  importance  in  the  management  of 
trees,  and  the  principles  upon  which  it  is  founded  must  be  clearly  un- 
derstood before  complete  success  in  fruit  culture  can  be  attained. 

Plants  left  to  nature  maintain  a  well-balanced  reciprocal  action  be- 
tween their  branches  and  roots  ;  and  every  branch,  bud,  or  leaf  that  is 
removed  must  exercise  an  influence  either  injurious  or  beneficial,  and 
no  one  should  attempt  to  remove  branches  unless  they  foresee  the  effects 
and  influence  of  such  removals. 

The  time  of  pruning,  whether  during  the  summer  or  during  winter, 
will  depend  upon  the  object  to  be  attained  ;  a  brief  consideration  of 
plant  growth  will  assist  us  in  determining  this  question. 

When  a  seed  is  deposited  in  a  suitable  germinating  medium,  its  first 
effort  is  to  send  a  root  downwards  in  the  earth,  and  then  push  a  shoot 
upwards  in  the  air.  The  seed  contains  within  itself  all  the  nutriment 
necessary  for  this  process;  but  as  soon  as  the  young  plant  is  so  far 
formed,  its  mode  of  existence  is  changed,  and  it  becomes  dependent  upon 
the  soil  and  atmosphere  for  future  support. 


52 

The  elementary  substances  absorbed  by  the  roots  undergo  decompo- 
sition through  the  influence  of  the  leaves,  and  the  material  is  thus  pre- 
pared for  further  root-growth  and  extension.  The  roots  have  no  inherent 
power  of  extension,  but  are  dependent  upon  the  health  and  action  of 
the  foliage ;  and  although  in  germination  the  roots  are  first  formed, 
their  growth  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  foliage  of  the  plant  that  pro- 
duced the  seed  from  which  they  emitted. 

It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that  the  increase  in  size  of  the  plant,  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  its  secretions,  and  the  extension  of  its  roots  are 
all  dependent  upon  the  healthy  action  of  the  leaves. 

When  it  is  considered  how  essential  the  foliage  is  to  the  healthy  de- 
velopment of  the  plant,  we  may  well  pause  before  infringing  upon  the 
reciprocal  action  nature  has  established  between  the  roots  and  branches, 
for  it  is  evident  that  every  branch  or  leaf  removed  has  an  effect  either 
for  good  or  for  evil  upon  the  plant.  The  correlative  action  between 
the  leaves  and  roots  being  so  intimately  connected,  it  follows  that  any 
mdiiuution  of  leaf  growth  during  the  period  of  active  vegetation  must 
retard  root  development.  Hence  it  is  an  axiom,  now  becoming  recog- 
nized, that  summer  pruning  weakens  growth,  while  winter  pruning 
produces  a  contrary  effect. 

Summer  pruning  can  be  useful  where  wood-growth  is  to  be  checked, 
and  it  will  be  repressed  in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  the  removal  of  the 
foliage.  Fruit  trees,  when  planted  in  a  generous  soil,  frequently  attain 
a  luxuriance  incompatible  with  a  fruitful  habit,  and  their  flowering  may 
be  somewhat  hastened  by  judicious  pruning  or  pinching,  so  as  to  retard 
wood-growth;  but  care  must  be  exercised,  and  much  observation  and 
experience  are  requisite  before  the  object  can  be  safely  attained. 

Winter  pruning  invigorates  wood-growth.  When  a  portion  of  the 
branches  of  a  tree  is  removed  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves,  the  balance  of 
growth  is  destroyed  and  the  roots  have  the  preponderance ;  the  re- 
maining buds  will  now  shoot  forth  with  increased  vigor — an  important 
consideration  with  trees  or  vines  that  have  become  weakened  from  over- 
bearing or  any  other  cause,  imparting  new  vigor  to  weak  and  sickly 
plants. 

The  time  for  winter  pruning  may  be  regulated  by  the  condition  of  the 
plant;  if  pruned  immediately  after  the  leaves  fall  or  ripen,  the  shoots 
will  be  stronger  the  succeeding  season  than  they  would  be  if  the  opera- 
tion had  been  delayed  until  spring.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  dur- 
ing winter  the  plant  still  continues  to  absorb  food  by  its  roots,  which 
is  distributed  over  the  branches;  and  as  the  principal  flow  of  sap  is 
always  directed  to  the  extreme  points  of  shoots,  the  highest  buds  are 
most  fully  developed.  If,  therefore,  pruning  is  delayed  till  spring,  this 
accumulation  is  cut  and  thrown  away,  and  to  that  extent  the  plant  is 
weakened.  Early  winter  pruning  is  eminently  advantageous  to  native 
grapes.  As  the  retained  buds  become  charged  with  sap  during  winter, 
they  start  and  advance  rapidly — a  matter  of  much  moment  where  the 


53 

summers  are  rather  short  for  ripening  the  fruit  and  wood  of  these 
plants. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  many  varieties  of  trees  to  form  strong  central 
growths  at  the  expense  of  the  side  branches,  more  especially  while  the 
plants  are  young.  Pruning  these  strong  shoots  in  winter  only  increases 
the  evil,  unless  summer  pruning  is  attended  to  by  pinching  out  the  ends 
of  every  shoot  before  it  gains  sufficient  headway  to  injure  the  growth 
of  the  lower  branches.  Strong  growths  should  be  pruned  in  summer 
and  weak  ones  in  winter.  In  the  management  of  hedges,  where  uni- 
formity of  growth  is  all  important,  this  rule  should  constantly  be  kept 
in  view. 

When  the  size  of  a  tree  is  the  only  object  sought,  summer  pruning 
should  not  be  practiced.  But  it  may  be  said  that  pruning  of  any  kind 
is  a  negative  operation,  and  probably  it  is  within  the  limits  of  possibility 
that  trees  may  be  trained  to  any  form  and  maintained  in  a  fruitful  con- 
dition without  any  instrumental  pruning  whatever,  unless  to  remedy 
disease  and  casualties.  It  is  much  easier,  for  instance,  to  rub  off  a  bud 
in  May  than  it  is  to  cut  out  a  branch  in  December;  and  if  a  judicious 
system  of  disbudding  and  pinching  was  strictly  followed  there  would 
be  no  occasion  for  winter  pruning ;  or,  were  it  possible  to  place  a  tree 
in  such  a  soil,  and  under  such  conditions  that  it  would  only  make  a 
moderate  growth  of  well-matured  wood,  little,  if  any,  prunning  would 
be  required.  But  as  all  of  these  conditions  are  difficult  to  realize  in 
in  happy  combination,  we  have  to  resort  to  pruning,  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  involved  will  materially  assist  the  operator. 

EEMAEKS  ON  PEAR  CULTUEE. 

The  value  of  the  pear  as  a  domestic  fruit  is  second  only  to  that  of 
the  apple.  For  culinary  purposes  the  latter  is  probably  more  highly 
esteemed,  but  for  the  dessert  the  pear  is  almost  universally  held  as 
much  superior.  The  pear  tree  is  hardy  and  attains  to  a  great  age, 
greater,  it  is  conceded,  than  the  apple,  notwithstanding  the  popular  im- 
pression that  it  is  subject  to  more  casualties  and  is  not  so  enduring. 
History  proves  that  the  pear  is  of  very  ancient  cultivation,  although 
it  has  not  been  so  largely  or  so  generally  planted  as  the  apple ;  various 
reasons  may  have  influenced  this  discrimination,  the  most  prominent  of 
which  are  the  greater  care  required  in  harvesting  the  crop,  and  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  and  ripening  the  fruit  to  its  highest  degree  of  per- 
fection. Even  at  the  present  time  the  management  of  the  finest  varie- 
ties is  far  from  being  generally  understood.  The  prevailing  opinion 
that  the  tree  is  constitutionally  tender,  and  more  subjected  to  diseases 
and  casualties  than  other  fruit  trees,  has  undoubtedly  exerted  a  strong 
influence  against  its  extended  culture ;  but,  however  much  these  rea- 
sons may  have  gained  credence  in  the  past,  they  have  now  lost  their 
efficacy,  and  many  extensive  pear  orchards  have  been  planted  during 
the  past  fifteen  years,  and  their  number  is  constantly  increasing. 


54 

SITES  AND   SHELTER  OF  PEAR   ORCHARDS. 

Low  situations  should  be  avoided  on  account  of  the  greater  extremes 
of  temperature  prevalent  in  valleys  than  places  of  moderate  elevation, 
and  the  consequent  probability  of  injury  from  late  spring  and  early 
winter  frosts.  A  sloping  hillside,  contiguous  to  a  well-defined  valley, 
forms  the  choicest  orchard  site,  not  only  for  pears,  but  for  other  fruits 
as  well.  To  insure  the  greatest  advantage  from  position  the  trees 
should  not  be  planted  lower  than  within  100  feet  of  upright  elevation 
from  the  lowest  point  in  the  valley.  The  cold  air  will  then  settle  dur- 
ing the  night  in  a  stratum  below  the  trees,  and  the  warm  air  accumu- 
lated in  the  lower  ground  during  the  day  will  be  pressed  up  to  the 
higher  altitude  occupied  by  the  orchard,  and  thus  afford  considerable 
protection  in  cold  nights. 

The  obvious  necessity  of  shelter  to  pear  orchards  has  led,  in  some 
instances,  to  the  mistake  of  selecting  low  grounds  for  their  apparently 
well-protected  position,  which,  for  the  reasons  given  above,  are  the 
worst  possible  localities.  Contrasted  with  valley  planting,  even  what 
might  be  termed  bleak  exposures  have  the  preference,  and  the  unsatis- 
factory results  attending  orchards  in  low  protected  grounds  has  led  to 
a  supposition  that  shelter  is  injurious  rather  than  beneficial. 

The  addition  of  shelter  to  an  otherwise  judiciously  selected  site  is 
altogether  different  from  endeavoring  to  secure  it  by  choosing  a  low 
situation.  The  efficacy  of  protection  is  now  generally  well  understood, 
especially  by  those  who  attempt  pear  culture  in  regions  that  are  com- 
paratively treeless.  '  Even  the  White  Doyenne,  the  famed  Virgalieu,  or 
butter  pear,  worthless  in  exposed  situations,  is  produced  in  all  its  priy- 
tine  excellence  where  the  tree  is  protected,  as  may  be  seen  in  many  old 
gardens  in  cities,  where  this  variety  is  very  common. 

The  shelter  required  is  not  so  much  to  repel  or  alleviate  mere  ther- 
mometric  cold  as  it  is  to  arrest  evaporation  and  its  accompanying  ex- 
haustion of  vitality,  by  checking  the  rapid  and  penetrating  action  of  dry 
winds. 

Evergreen  trees  afford  the  most  perfect  shelter  in  the  least  space.  A 
single  row  of  Norway  firs,  Austrian  pines,  or  other  equally  hardy  ever- 
green trees  will  give  shelter  for  a  considerable  distance ;  thickly  planted 
belts  of  deciduous  trees  will  also  render  effective  service.  How  far 
apart  these  belts  and  hedges  should  be  placed,  and  in  what  direction 
they  will  be  most  useful,  will  depend  upon  the  surroundings  and  local 
specialties.  As  the  best  mode  of  draining  the  field  will  depend  upon 
its  surface  undulations,  so  the  best  mode  of  sheltering  will  be  guided 
by  the  general  aspect  and  position  of  the  orchard. 

SOIL. 

The  pear  will  exist  in  a  variety  of  soils,  but  attains  greatest  perfec- 
tion in  clayey  loam.  Even  on  stiff  clays  the  tree  will  grow  and  pro- 


55 

duce  very  satisfactorily  under  the  ameliorating  influences  of  the  prep- 
aration and  culture  which  such  soils  require.  Draining  first  and 
subsoiling  afterwards  are  the  chief  requisites  for  gradual  amelioration  ; 
in  short,  while  a  water-soaked  clay  is  the  most  utterly  worthless  of  all 
lands  for  the  growth  of  any  crop,  a  properly  drained  and  aerated  clay 
soil  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  and  only  requires  careful  management 
to  render  it  available  for  the  best  productions  of  the  orchard,  farm,  or 
garden.  The  prominent  precaution  in  managing  a  clayey  soil  is  never 
to  work  on  it  while  wet,  but  only  when  it  is  dry  to  friability.  No  expe- 
dient or  process  of  culture  will  compensate  for  the  injury  sustained  by 
working  clay  soils  during  summer,  when  saturated  with  water;  the 
injury  can  not  be  remedied  except  by  a  winter's  freezing,  which  will 
again  produce  friability,  under  proper  treatment. 

Soils  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  character  are  not  well  adapted  to  the 
pear.  In  these  soils,  so  variable  in  their  degree  of  moisture,  the  trees 
ripen  prematurely  and  drop  their  foliage  if  the  weather  proves  dry 
towards  the  end  of  summer;  then,  in  the  event  of  moist  weather  fol- 
lowing a  period  of  drought,  a  late  secondary  growth  will  be  produced, 
which,  failing  to  mature,  induces  a  tendency  to  blight,  and  predisposes 
to  other  diseases.  Surface  dressing  of  compost,  repeated  cultivation, 
or  constant  mulching  will  counteract,  to  some  extent,  the  effects  of 
uncongenial  soil  for  the  pear  roots,  but  where  it  is  impracticable  to 
select  any  but  a  thin  gravel  or  sand  for  the  growth  of  this  fruit,  the 
dwarf  tree  is  preferable,  as  the  roots  of  the  quince  can  be  confined  to 
a  small  area,  which  may  be  prepared  and  maintained  to  meet  all  the 
requirements  of  growth. 

PLANTING. 

Where  the  soil  has  been  prepared  by  deep  tillage  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  dig  holes  deeper  then  required  to  merely  cover  the  roots  of  the 
plants.  In  heavy  soils  that  have  not  been  prepared  in  the  most  thorough 
manner  the  holes  should  be  made  wide  rather  than  deep.  In  gravelly 
subsoils  pits  may  be  dug  18  Inches  in  depth,  the  surface  soil  and  the 
subsoil  being  thrown  out  at  opposite  sides,  and  filled  in  equally  until 
the  proper  height  is  reached  for  setting  the  plant.  In  either  case  about 
a  bushel  of  compost,  made  up  of  leaf  mould,  rotted  manure,  and  light 
soil,  if  carefully  spread  around  the  roots,  will  form  an  admirable  root- 
ing medium;  this  should  be  finely  pulverized  and  rather  dry  than  wet 
when  used. 

Deep  planting  and  shallow  planting  are  the  injurious  extremes  in 
setting  trees.  The  plain  and  incontrovertible  rule  is  to  set  the  plant 
so  that  the  point  from  whence  the  stem  and  roots  proceed  in  opposite 
directions  will  be  about  1  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is 
infinitely  better  to  plant  so  that  future  surface  dressing  may  be  re- 
quired to  cover  the  swelling,  exposed  roots,  than  to  have  them  buried 
below  the  ready  influence  of  atmospheric  heat  and  air. 


56 

MULCHING. 

The  preservation  of  a  proper  degree  of  moisture  in  the  soil  surround- 
ing the  roots  of  the  tree  is  the  principal  object  of  culture  during  the 
first  summer  after  planting.  Both  the  kind  and  amount  of  care  will 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  condition  of  the  weather; 
something  will  also  depend  upon  the  first  preparation  of  the  ground. 
Where  the  soil  has  been  drained,  deepened,  and  pulverized,  and  the 
surface  is  loose  and  mellow,  nothing  further  will  be  required  than 
merely  to  prevent  a  growth  of  weeds.  If  the  surface  is  tenacious,  fre- 
quent stirring,  especially  after  rains,  will  probably  suffice,  but  where 
the  soil  is  shallow  and  largely  composed  of  sand  or  gravel  mulching 
will  most  effectually  accomplish  the  purpose. 

Any  loose  material  will  answer  for  a  mulch,  such  as  coarse  manure, 
strawy  litter  of  any  kind,  or  short  grass  cut  from  lawns.  Where  a  few 
trees  only  are  to  be  cared  for,  tan  bark  and  refuse  charcoal  dust  are  fre- 
quently employed.  Mulch  should  not  be  applied  before  the  middle  of 
June,  unless  the  weather  proves  very  dry  and  warm  previous  to  that 
time,  and  on  clean  ground  it  may  remain  during  the  following  winter, 
or  be  renewed  if  exhausted;  but  in  rough,  soddy  ground,  where  field 
mice  may  lurk,  the  soil  around  the  trees  should  be  thoroughly  commi- 
nuted and  kept  clean  and  compressed. 

CULTURE. 

The  best  mode  of  treating  the  soil  in  pear  orchards  is  an  important 
question  both  in  regard  to  the  health  of  the  tree  and  the  production  of 
fruit.  Laying  aside  all  special  circumstances,  it  appears  evident  that 
the  condition  of  the  plants  will  indicate  the  treatment  required.  The 
object  being  to  maintain  health  and  encourage  fruitfulness.  the  measure 
of  successful  accomplishment  of  these  conditions  will  greatly  depend 
upon  the  knowledge  of  the  principles  governing  vegetable  growth  pos- 
sessed by  the  cultivator.  When  the^  trees  are  young  the  chief  object  is 
to  encourage  judicious  growth  by  employing  expedients  known  to  favor 
vegetable  extension,  such  as  the  application  of  manures,  breaking  up 
and  pulverizing  the  soil,  surface  stirring,  and  other  similar  operations. 
By  judicious  growth  is  meant  a  luxuriance  not  incompatible  with  matur- 
ity, and  as  this  will  depend  upon  climate  and  locality  it  is  evident  that 
a  discriminating  knowledge  of  cause  and  effect  will  largely  influence 
success.  In  northern  latitudes,  where  the  season  of  growth  is  confined 
to  5  months'  duration,  it  will  be  impossible  to  mature  the  same  amount 
of  wood  that  can  be  produced  on  trees  in  a  locality  having  7  months  of 
growing  season.  In  the  latter  case  stimulating  applications  may  be 
used  with  the  best  effects  that  would  only  tend  to  dissolution  in  the 
climate  of  short  summers.  The  great  desideratum  in  fruit  culture  is 
ripened  wood ;  all  useful  cultivation  begins  and  ends  with  this  single 
object  in  view,  and  is  the  criterion  of  good  or  bad  management. 


57 

To  cultivate  or  not  to  cultivate  is  a  question  to  be  determined  by 
climate  and  condition  of  soil.  Where  it  is  deemed  advisable  to 
encourage  growth  it  will  be  proper  to  employ  such  appliances  of  culture 
as  are  known  to  produce  that  result ;  and  again,  when  ample  luxuriance 
is  secured,  and  the  tendency  is  still  in  that  direction,  all  surface  culture 
should  be  abandoned  and  the  orchard  laid  down  in  grass,  cultivation 
to  be  again  practiced  when  the  trees  indicate  its  necessity. 

PRUNING. 

The  pear  tree  is  usually  a  victim  of  excessive  pruning.  It  is  pruned 
in  winter  to  make  it  grow,  and  pruned  and  pinched  in  summer  to  make 
it  fruit.  Why  it  is  that  the  pear  more  than  other  spur-bearing  fruit 
trees  should  be  supposed  to  require  so  close  and  continued  pruning 
does  not  appear  of  easy  explanation.  It  is  evident  that  this  immoderate 
pruning  is  not  followed  by  satisfactory  results,  for  while  apple,  plum, 
and  cherry  trees  fruit  with  abundant  regularity,  with  but  little  atten- 
tion to  pruning,  unfruitfulness  in  the  pear  is  a  frequent  cause  of  com- 
plaint, especially  with  those  who  pay  the  strictest  attention  to  pruning 
rules,  showing  clearly  that  successful  pear  culture  is  not  dependent 
upon  pruning  alone.  While  it  is  perhaps  equally  erroneous  to  assert 
that  pear  trees  should  not  be  pruned  at  all— an  extreme  which  no  ex- 
perienced cultivator  will  indorse — it  is  worthy  of  inquiry  whether  un- 
pruned  trees  do  not  exhibit  a  better  fruit  bearing  record  than  those 
which  have  been  subject  to  the  highest  pruning  codes.  How  far  the 
proverbial  liability  of  the  pear  to  suffer  from  blight  may  be  due  to  the 
interference  and  disarrangement  of  growths  caused  by  summer  prun- 
ing it  may  not  be  possible  to  decide,  but  the  tendency  to  late  fall 
growths,  and  the  consequent  immaturity  of  wood  which  is  thereby  en- 
couraged*, is  well  known  to  be  of  much  injury  and  greatly  conducive 
to  disease.  Perhaps  no  advice  that  has  been  given  is  so  fruitful  a- 
cause  of  failure  and  disappointment  in  fruit  culture  as  that  embodied 
in  the  brief  sentence,  "  Prune  in  summer  for  fruit." 

The  physiological  principle  upon  which  this  advice  is  based  is  that 
which  recognizes  barrenness  in  fruit  trees  as  the  result  of  an  undue 
amount  of  wood  growth,  and  that,  in  accordance  with  acknowledged 
laws,  any  process  that  will  secure  a  reduction  of  growth  will  induce 
fruitfulness.  The  removal  of  foliage  from  a  tree  in  active  growth  will 
weaken  its  vitality  by  causing  a  corresponding  check  to  the  extension 
of  roots,  but  the  removal  of  the  mere  points  of  strong  shoots  has  no 
palpable  effect  in  checking  root  growth,  the  roots  proceed  to  grow  and 
the  sap  seeks  outlets  in  other  channels,  forming  new  shoots,  which  in 
no  way  increase  the  fruitfulness  of  the  plant. 

While  it  may  be  confidently  stated  that,  as  a  practical  rule,  easily 
followed,  and  of  general  application,  summer  pruning  for  fruit  can  not 
be  recommended  except  as  an  expedient  rarely  successful,  it  is  also  true 
that  there  are  certain  ueriods  in  the  growth  of  a  plant  when  the 


58 

removal  of  a  portion  of  the  shoots  would  tend  to  increase  the  develop- 
ment of  the  remaining  buds  without  causing  them  to  form  shoots.  For 
example,  if  the  growing  shoots  of  a  pear  tree  are  shortened  or  pruned 
by  removing  one-third  of  their  length,  say,  towards  the  end  of  June,  the 
check  will  immediately  cause  the  remaining  buds  on  these  shoots  to 
push  into  growth  and  produce  a  mass  of  twigs  as  far  removed  as  may 
be  from  fruit-bearing  branches.  Again,  if  this  pruning  is  delayed  until 
August,  and  the  season  subsequently  proves  to  be  warm  and  dry,  the 
probabilities  are  that  the  remaining  buds  will  develop  into  short  spur- 
like  shoots,  from  which  blossom  buds  may  in  course  of  time  be  formed  ; 
but  if  the  season  continues  wet,  and  mild  and  growing  weather  extends 
late  into  the  fall,  these  same  shoots  will  be  lengthened  into  weakly, 
slender  growths,  which  never  mature,  and  are  of  no  use  whatever. 
There  is  no  certainty  as  to  the  proper  time  to  summer  prune,  because 
no  two  seasons  are  precisely  alike,  and  trees  vary  in  their  vigor  from 
year  to  year ;  and  yet  this  uncertain,  indefinite,  and  constantly  experi- 
mental procedure  is  the  base  upon  which  the  advice  to  "  prune  in  sum- 
mer for  fruit "  is  founded. 

The  pear  tree,  in  fact,  requires  very  little  pruning,  and  that  only  so 
far  as  may  be  necessary  to  regulate  branches  in  either  of  two  exigencies- 
In  the  first  place,  when  the  young  tree  is  placed  in  its  permanent  posi- 
tion in  the  orchard  its  roots  will  be  greatly  disturbed  and  many  of  them 
destroyed;  it  will  therefore  be  expedient  in  this  exigency  to  abridge 
the  branches,  so  as  to  restore  the  balance  of  growth  that  existed  between 
the  roots  and  branches  previous  to  removal. 

This  pruning  at  transplanting  has  its  opponents  on  the  theoretical 
grounds  that,  as  the  formation  of  roots  is  dependent  upon  the  action 
of  leaves,  it  must  follow  that  the  more  branches  and  leaves  left  upon  a 
plant  the  more  rapidly  will  new  roots  be  produced ;  but  there  is  one 
important  element  overlooked  in  this  reasoning,  namely,  the  loss  of  sap 
by  evaporation,  which  speedily  exhausts  the  plant,  while  it  has  no  active 
roots  to  meet  the  demand.  The  proper  practice  is  to  reduce  the  branches 
so  as  to  give  the  roots  the  preponderance,  and  many  kinds  of  trees 
can  only  be  successfully  removed  by  cutting  the  stem  off  close  to  the 
ground. 

If  the  tree  has  been  pruned  close  back  at  planting,  the  first  summer 
will  develop  the  foundation  for  a  well-balanced,  symmetrical  plant,  but 
as  this  result  depends  upon  a  good  start,  it  is  well  to  keep  an  eye  on 
the  young  growths  during  the  first  season,  and  if  any  of  the  shoots 
appear  to  be  developing  to  the  detriment  of  others  equally  necessary 
for  future  branches,  the  points  of  such  shoots  should  be  pinched  off, 
but  in  doing  so,  let  there  be  as  small  a  removal  of  foliage  as  possible, 
the  object  being  not  to  weaken,  but  merely  to  equalize  growth.  As  a 
general  rule  no  advantage  will  be  gained  by  pruning  any  portion  of  the 
shoots  after  the  first  season,  unless  in  the  case  of  weakly  trees,  which 
will  be  strengthened  by  pruning  down  in  winter.  The  removal  of 


59 

branches  during  the  summer  weakens  growth,  but  when  a  portion  of 
the  branches  are  removed  after  growth  is  completed,  the  roots,  not 
having  been  disturbed,  will  have  the  preponderance,  and  the  number  of 
buds  being  diminished,  those  that  are  left  will  receive  increased  vigor. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  there  is  nothing  more  certain  than 
that  by  shortening  in  or  pruning  back  the  ends  of  shoots,  either  in  sum- 
mer or  winter,  the  fruit-producing  period  is  retarded  and  the  fruit- 
producing  capabilities  of  the  trees  abridged.  Fruiting  spurs  will  not 
form  where  the  growths  are  constantly  interrupted  and  excited  by 
pruning;  but  after  the  third  or  fourth  year,  young  shoots  will,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  become  covered  with  fruiting  spurs  the  second  year 
after  their  formation,  if  left  to  their  natural  mode  and  condition  of 
growth.  Of  course  this  refers  to  trees  in  soils  of  moderate  fertility, 
grown  in  a  climate  favorable  to  the  plant. 

The  only  pruning  then  that  is  really  essential  after  the  plant  has  be- 
come established  will  be  confined  to  thinning  out  crowded  branches ; 
and  this  forms  the  second  exigency  for  pruning.  If  low-headed  trees 
are  preferred,  those  branches  that  have  become  destitute  of  fruiting 
spurs  near  the  body  of  the  tree  may  be  cut  out  and  a  young  shoot  be 
allowed  to  take  the  place  of  the  one  removed.  There  will  be  no  lack  of 
young  shoots  for  this  purpose,  as  they  will  be  reproduced  from  the  base 
of  the  cut  branch,  selecting  the  strongest  and  best  placed  to  occupy  the 
vacancy,  if  such  occupany  is  desired.  This  mode  of  cutting  back 
branches  will  be  more  particularly  essential  in  the  case  of  dwarf  pears, 
as  the  quince  roots  are  unable  to  support  a  tall,  heavy-headed  tree,  but 
in  all  other  respects  dwarf  pears  should  be  treated  the  same  as  standards. 

INFLUENCE  OF   STOCKS  ON  GJROWTH  AND   QUALITY  OF  FRUIT. 

In  comparing  remarks  and  observations  made  by  different  cultivators 
with  reference  to  the  merits  of  varieties,  their  growth,  productiveness, 
size,  and  quality  of  fruit,  arid  other  characteristics,  there  is  found  so 
great  a  disparity  as  to  lead  to  a  supposition  that  different  varieties  are 
being  discussed  under  the  same  name.  No  doubt  this  is  occasionally 
the  case,  but  the  difference  caused  by  the  influence  of  the  stock  upon 
which  they  are  worked  is  frequently  to  blame  for  these  discrepancies. 
Every  nurseryman  is  aware  of  the  great  irregularity  of  growth  in  plants 
of  the  same  variety ;  they  may  have  been  grafted  at  the  same  time  on 
stocks  of  equal  size,  planted  on  the  same  day  and  in  the  same  soil,  yet 
their  comparative  growths  will  vary  considerably ;  so  much  difference 
exists  that  the  plants  will  be  classed  into  two  or  more  sizes  and  held  at 
different  valuations.  Although  the  vigor  of  growth  is  thus  varied,  the 
habit  of  the  variety  is  not  changed,  the  upright  form  of  growth  will  still 
characterize  the  Buffum,  and  the  spreading  habit  of  the  Kostiezer  will 
remain  with  each  individual  of  that  variety ;  but  in  a  plantation  of  fifty 
of  any  sort  there  will  be  some  weak  growers  and  an  occasional  speci- 


60 

men  that  after  lingering  on  in  a  sickly  condition  for  several  years  will 
finally  be  removed. 

It  is  reasonable  to  expect  these  diversities  in  the  growth  of  stocks 
produced  from  seed,  and  the  influence  they  impart  to  the  graft,  but  it 
is  seldom  that  allowance  is  made  for  the  many  peculiarities  that  may 
undoubtedly  be  traced  to  this  cause.  This  is  still  further  confirmed  by 
the  more  uniform  growth  of  dwarf  pears,  the  stocks  of  which  are  pro- 
duced from  cuttings  or  layers,  and  are  consequently  of  more  uniform 
vigor,  being  an  extension  of  one  individuality  instead  of  the  separate 
individualities  of  seedling  plants. 

BLIGHT. 

The  greatest  drawback  to  extended  pear  culture  is  the  disease  famil- 
iarly known  as  blight.  The  predisposing  cause  of  this  malady  has  not 
been  specifically  determined  ;  the  active  cause  of  dissolution  is  known  to 
parasitical  fungi.  This  much,  however,  experience  seems  to  confirm: 
that  trees  placed  in  positions  and  under  circumstances  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate that  insure  a  growth  of  moderate  vigor,  which  growth  shall  become 
perfectly  matured  and  solidified  before  the  advent  of  winter,  are  so  sel- 
dom" attacked  by  this  disease  as  to  be,  for  all  practical  purposes,  exempt. 

A  safe  practice,  and  one  that  will  probably  become  general  when 
further  and  extended  experiments  prove  its  value,  is  to  cover  the  body 
of  the  tree  and  all  the  principal  branches  with  a  wash,  formed  by  plac- 
ing 1  peck  of  lime  and  4  pounds  of  sulphur  in  a  vessel  and  adding  suf- 
ficient boiling  water  to  slack  the  lime.  If  the  white  color  is  objection- 
able it  can  be  changed  to  any  other  more  suitable.  The  spread  of  the 
fungi  on  the  bark  of  trees  has  been  arrested  by  timely  applications  of 
this  mixture. 

DISTANCES  APART  FOR  PEAR  TREES. 

The  opinion  is  now  becoming  prevalent  that  close  planting,  so  that  the 
trees  shelter  each  other,  is  advantageous.  For  standard  trees,  18  feet 
apart  is  considered  a  good  maximum,  and  10  feet  for  dwarfs.  These 
distances  preclude  the  practicability  of  using  horse-power  in  the  culture 
of  the  soil,  at  all  events  after  a  few  year's  growth,  which,  all  things  being 
considered,  may  be  regarded  as  a  step  in  the  right  direction. 

NATIVE  GEAPES. 

It  is  very  generally  conceded  that  the  culture  of  native  grapes  is  not 
so  promising  a  remunerative  industry  as  could  be  desired.  New  varie- 
ties, some  of  them  possessing  merit,  are  still  being  announced,  but  there 
is  no  improvement  in  their  adaptability  to  general  culture  in  ordinary 
localities.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  compare  the  grape  zone,  as  it 
was  called,  to  that  of  Indian  corn,  which  was  intended  to  convey  the 
idea  that  where  this  crop  would  mature  the  native  grape  would  also 


61 

reach  maturity.  So  far  as  heat  and  cold  are  involved  in  temperatures, 
this  criterion  is  probably  nearly  correct,  the  amount  of  heat  necessary 
to  insure  a  crop  of  corn  being  also  sufficient  to  mature  most  of  the  va- 
rieties of  cultivated  grapes  which  have  been  derived  from  our  native 
northern  species ;  but  the  numerous  failures  in  profitable  grape  cul- 
ture prove  that  other  factors  besides  those  of  heat  and  cold  have  an  im- 
portant influence  upon  the  health  of  a  vineyard. 

To  those  who  are  conversant  with  the  history  of  the  progress  of  grape 
culture  in  the  United  States  for  the  past  30  years  and  have  acquainted 
themselves  with  the  cause  of  varying  failures  and  successes,  it  must 
seem  difficult  to  account  for  the  fact  that  grape-growers  in  general  have 
been  slow,  and  apparently  unwilling,  to  recognize  the  true  reason  for 
most  of  the  failures  which  occur.  In  some  of  the  earliest  reports  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  the  statement  was  dwelt  upon  that  the 
greatest  obstacle  to  complete  success  in  grape  culture  could  be  referred 
to  the  deterioration  of  the  plants  consequent  upon  the  injury  they  sus- 
tained from  mildew  on  the  leaves.  This  explanation  of  failure  was  not 
generally  considered  as  conclusive.  Both  grape-growers  and  authors 
of  treatises  on  grape  culture,  especially  the  latter,  usually  referred  fail- 
ures to  some  other  cause  or  causes,  which  were  expressed  by  the  phrase 
"improper  treatment,"  and  this  was  considered  a  sufficient  answer  to 
all  inquiries  regarding  failures. 

This  profound  explanation  was  generally  accompanied  by  the  further 
advice  that  by  giving  vineyards  "  proper  treatment"  they  would  be  ex- 
empt from  failure  or  loss.  When  called  upon  to  define  "  improper  "  and 
"proper"  treatment,  the  answers  would  be  often  contradictory,  and 
more  frequently  unsatisfactory.  This  want  of  recognition  of  the  true 
source  of  trouble  has  been  greatly  against  progressive  grape  culture. 
Yarieties  ot  grapes  much  lauded  for  their  superior  qualities  have  been 
procured  at  great  expense  and  extensively  planted,  the  result  only  add- 
ing another  disappointment  to  the  planter.  The  main  cause  of  failure 
has  been  frequently  pointed  out,  and  from  time  to  time  the  Department 
has  published  lists  of  those  varieties  best  adapted  to  general  culture, 
as  also  those  which  require  special  localities,  and  further  experience 
has  borne  conclusive  evidence  of  the  value  and  accuracy  of  these  re- 
ports. It  was  distinctly  shown,  and  it  is  now  clearly  admitted,  that  the 
distinguishing  feature  of  a  good  grape  climate  is  that  where  there  is 
entire  absence  of  mildew  on  the  foliage  or  on  the  fruit  of  the  vines. 
While  making  this  statement  prominent  it  is  not  forgotten  that  heavy 
losses  are  occasioned  by  rot  in  the  berry.  This  disease  is  not,  however, 
confined  to  varieties  subject  to  leaf  mildew,  but  it  is  equally  prevalent 
in  those  which  are  rarely  attacked  by  it.  We  need  no  stronger  proof 
of  the  influence  that  the  presence  or  absence  of  mildew  on  the  leaves 
of  our  native  grapes  has  upon  the  determination  of  their  value  than 
to  turn  to  the  list  of  the  varieties  which  are  most  extensively  cultivated, 


62 

when  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  valued  more  because  of  their  free- 
dom from  disease  than  from  the  qualities  of  their  fruit. 

Again,  it  is  clearly  ascertained  that  the  most  fatal  species  of  mildew 
is  caused  by  dampness,  so  that  the  further  statement  may  be  made  that 
where  we  find  a  locality  in  which  grapes  are  specially  remunerative  we 
will  find  that  its  climate  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  heavy  dews. 
It  is  only  in  these  latter  localities  and  under  their  special  conditions 
that  the  best  varieties  afford  a  profitable  return.  Where  heavy  dews 
prevail  during  the  summer  mouths  it  has  been  found  unsatisfactory  to 
cultivate  such  varieties  as  the  lona,  Walter,  Eumelan,  Diana,  Croton, 
Delaware,  Catawba,  and  others  of  first  excellence.  Partial  success  may 
sometimes  be  attained,  owing  to  local  conditions  of  protection  and  shel- 
ter; and,  as  has  long  been  thoroughly  demonstrated  and  reported,  all 
these  varieties  can  be  grown  to  perfection  when  they  are  protected  from 
heavy  dews,  either  by  artificial  or  natural  expedients,  such  as  those 
of  covering  the  trellis  upon  which  they  are  tied  by  a  canopy  of  boards, 
canvas,  or  glass,  or  by  allowing  the  vines  to  grow  up  in  trees  whose 
foliage  will  protect  that  of  the  vine. 

But  little  further  progress  can  be  attained  in  the  culture  of  the  grape, 
either  for  table  use  or  for  the  manufacture  of  wine,  until  a.  distinction 
is  practically  recognized  between  the  species  and  their  varieties  which 
are  severally  best  suited  for  these  respective  purposes.  In  Europe, 
where  all  the  cultivated  grapes  are  said  to  have  been  produced  from  one 
species,  the  varieties  are  numerous,  but  they  are  divided  into  distinct 
classes  based  upon  their  values  as  regards  suitableness  for  wine,  for 
table  use,  or  for  drying  into  raisins. 

In  the  United  States  we  have  several  distinct  native  species,  from  one 
or  other  of  which  have  been  originated  all  the  varieties  now  in  cultiva- 
tion. The  only  classification  of  these  which  has  been  presented  look- 
ing to  the  arrangement  of  varieties  under  the  species  from  which  they 
have  been  produced  will  be  found  at  page  81.  of  the  Eeport  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  the  year  1869.  An  attempt  was  there  made 
to  draw  attention  to  the  most  valuable  peculiarities  of  the  different  spe- 
cies, peculiarities  which  are  more  or  less  inherited  by  the  varieties  which 
have  originated  from  them,  as  also  the  climates  to  which  they  seemed 
best  adapted.  Since  then  some  attention  has  been  given  to  the  signifi- 
cance and  importance  of  the  points  embraced  in  that  classification,  but 
the  subject  is  still  unrecognized  by  the  majority  of  those  engaged  in 
grape  culture. 

The  idea  that  our  native  grapes  would  be  more  rapidly  improved  by 
securing  hybrid  kinds  between  them  and  the  foreign  species  has  long 
been  entertained ;  and,  although  it  has  constantly  been  argued  by  some 
that  no  good  result  could  be  obtained,  yet  of  late  years  much  attention 
has  been  directed  to  this  mode  of  improvement,  and,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, varieties  of  very  superior  merits  have  been  produced,  many  of 
them  equal  to  the  best  of  the  foreign  varieties,  in  flavor  as  well  as  in 


63 

appearance,  but  no  variety  so  produced  has  yet  proved  able  to  maintain 
itself  as  worthy  of  general  cultivation ;  in  fact,  they  are  altogether  un- 
reliable except  under  conditions  where  even  foreign  grapes  can  be  raised 
with  a  good  degree  of  success.  This  is  much  to  be  regretted,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  the  truth  that  nothing  of  value  and  reliability  has  by  this 
means  been  added  to  our  list  of  hardy  grapes,  and  all  experience,  so 
far,  in  this  direction  only  tends  to  prove  the  wisdom  of  the  advice  given 
many  years  ago  that  the  line  of  improvement  should  be  confined  to 
hybridizing  our  native  species  with  each  other,  and  by  selection  ulti- 
mately procure  varieties  of  reputed  merit  both  for  table  use  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  wines.  But  this  improvement  can  not  be  systemat- 
ically pursued  unless  accompanied  by  a  very  distinct  and  clear  under- 
standing of  the  respective  merits  of  American  species. 

Until  quite  recently  varieties  of  the  fox  grape  ( Vitis  labrusca)  have 
mostly  been  produced,  and  these  have  been  recommended  and  culti- 
vated both  for  wine  and  table  use,  and  but  little  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  improvement  of  other  species,  notwithstanding  that  the 
summer  grape  (Vitis  cestivalis)  and  its  varieties  have  vastly  superior 
merits  as  wine  grapes.  No  better  evidence  of  this  fact  need  be  desired 
than  the  estimate  given  to  these  wines  in  foreign  countries.  Most  of 
the  American  wines  which  have  been  specially  recognized  at  foreign 
expositions  have  been  the  products  of  this  class  of  grapes.  But  the 
ultimate  value  of  these  grapes  will  not  be  realized  until  vineyards  of 
them  are  established  in  localities  where  they  can  be  ripened.  They 
require  a  longer  warm  season  than  suffices  for  varieties  of  the  labrusca 
family;  consequently  they  are  not  successfully  grown  in  localities  where 
the  improved  fox  grapes  are  most  largely  cultivated,  and  for  that  reason 
the  summer  grapes  are  but  little  known,  and  in  the  localities  where 
they  may  be  produced  in  perfection  the  culture  of  wine  grapes  has  not 
yet  become  an  established  industry. 

Among  the  best  known  varieties  of  this  eminently  wine-producing 
species  may  be  mentioned  the  Lenoir,  Herbermont,  Devereaux,  Alvey, 
Cynthiana,  and  Norton's  Virginia  Seedling.  These  varieties  yield  wines 
of  very  high  excellence  and  of  varied  qualities.  But  they  can  only  be 
grown  to  perfection  in  certain  locations  in  the  States  of  North  Carolina, 
Virginia,  and  other  States  having  similar  climates. 

It  therefore  appears  probable  that  in  the  further  improvement  of 
hardy  grapes  these  peculiarities  of  species  and  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  best  adapted  must  receive  more  attention  than  has  hitherto 
been  given  them. 

GEAPES— MILDEW. 

ID  some  of  the  earlier  reports  of  this  Department  much  attention  was 
given  to  grape  mildew,  its  causes  and  preventions,  with  practical  deduc- 
tions based  upon  extended  observations  on  the  subject. 

In  the  report  for  1865  mildew  is  characterized  as  "  the  great  obstacle 


64 

in  the  way  of  extended  grape  culture,"  and  a  summary  of  some  points  is 
made  as  follows : 

The  Peronospora,  or  mildew,  which  attacks  the  leaves  on  their  under  surface,  is 
encouraged  by  the  atmospherical  conditions  accompanying  dull,  cloudy  weather, 
with  occasional  showers;  or  when  heavy  dews  are  deposited  in  positions  where  the 
rays  of  the  sun  can  not  penetrate,  or  at  least  where  the  moisture  can  not  readily 
be  evaporated.  That,  so  far  as  is  known,  no  peculiar  constitution  of  soil  or  mode  of 
soil  culture  has  any  influence  on  its  prevention.  That,  so  far  as  is  known,  no  mode 
of  pruning  or  training,  except  so  far  as  they  agree  with  the  next  paragraph,  has 
any  effect  in  warding  off  the  disease.  That  shelter  and  protection  by  covered  trel- 
lises, or  masses  of  foliage,  will  greatly  modify  if  not  entirely  prevent  injury  from 
mildew. 

The  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  a  good  grape  climate  is,  primar- 
ily, that  of  an  entire  absence  of  mildew  on  the  foliage.  The  pres- 
ence of  water  or  moisture  on  the  leaves  is  necessary  for  the  extension 
of  mildew,  therefore  the  best  grape  climates  in  this  country  are  those 
of  greatest  immunity  from  dews. 

A  covered  grape  trellis  was  described  in  the  Patent  Office  report 
for  1861.  A  trellis  similar  to  that  described  was  erected  in  the  garden 
of  this  Department  in  the  spring  of  1803.  The  grapevines  grown  on 
this  trellis  were  entirely  free  from  mildew  on  the  leaves  and  from  rot  in 
the  fruit,  and  many  varieties  ripened  under  this  protection  that  failed 
to  mature  on  common  trellises  a  few  yards  distant  on  account  of  the 
failure  of  the  leaves  during  summer  from  mildew.  The  philosophy  of 
the  action  of  protection  in  this  particular  case  seems  to  be  its  tendency 
to  arrest  radiation  of  heat,  thus  protecting  the  foliage  from  the  cooling 
effects  of  night  temperatures,  which  in  turn  prevents  condensation  of 
atmospheric  moisture  on  the  leaves,  thereby  checking,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  predisposing  cause  of  mildew. 

In  experimenting  with  registering  thermometers  it  was  found  that 
during  clear,  still  nights  of  July,  an  exposed  thermometer,  projecting 
four  feet  from  the  covered  trellis,  would  mark  from  6°  to  10°  lower 
than  would  a  thermometer  fastened  to  the  trellis ;  the  foliage  being 
thus  kept  warmer  and  drier  on  the  protected  plants,  mildew  was  in  real- 
ity prevented.  It  was  also  found  that  the  fruit  ripened  on  protected 
vines  some  time  before  that  on  vines  not  protected. 

It  would  therefore  appear  that  the  best  grape  climates  or  localities 
would  be  those  where  dews  were  light  or  altogether  absent.  Such  lo- 
calities can  be  found.  Indeed,  it  may  be  observed  that  wherever  native 
grape  culture  has  become  popular  and  extensive  it  is  in  localities  where 
exemption  from  heavy  or  frequent  dews  prevail.  The  localities  may  be 
found  either  surrounded  by  large  bodies  of  water  or  on  hillsides  at  cer- 
tain elevations. 

The  influence  of  large  bodies  of  water  in  ameliorating  climates  is 
well  authenticated,  and  is  often  turned  to  practical  advantage  in  fruit 
culture.  Briefly  stated,  the  water  accumulates  heat  as  warm  weather 
prevails*  which  is  radiated  at  night,  and  its  influence  is  felt  on  vegeta- 


65 

tion  in  islands,  which  may  occur  as  well  for  a  considerable  distance  in- 
land from  the  margin  of  the  water.  The  presence  of  this  stratum  of 
air  is  evidenced  by  the  absence  of  light  frosts  during  late  fall,  and  the 
freshness  of  vegetation  as  far  as  the  heated  atmosphere  extends,  while 
immediately  beyond  its  influence  a  wintry  aspect  prevails. 

In  this  case  the  cause  of  exemption  from  cold  also  prevents  the  for- 
mation of  dew,  and  is  so  far  favorable  to  the  healthy  growth  and  free- 
dom from  mildew  of  the  grape. 

Again,  in  districts  where  hills  and  valleys  are  closely  and  distinctly 
defined,  there  are,  at  certain  elevations  on  the  hillsides,  a  zone 
or  belt  where  dews  are  not  known  and  where  frosts  are  modified.  The 
width  of  this  belt  varies  according  to  the  degree  of  cold  and,  to  some 
extent,  configuration  of  surface,  but  it  exists  in  all  countries  that  are 
traversed  by  high  mountains  and  deep  valleys.  Several  years  ago, 
when  collecting  data  on  this  subject,  a  correspondent  in  Matjon  County, 
North  Carolina,  wrote  as  follows: 

The  frost  line  is  not  permanently  fixed  at  any  particular  height  on  a  mountain,  but 
takes  a  higher  or  lower  range  according  to  the  degree  of  frost  that  produces  it ; 
within  the  space  of  11  years  its  maximum  height  has  been  300,  and  its  minimum 
height  125  feet,  vertical.  Another  fact  ascertained  is  that  there  is  no  fixed  dew  line 
on  our  mountain  sides,  but  that  it  gradually  abates  as  you  ascend,  and  at  the  height 
of  300  feet  the  dew  is  too  Ifght  to  produce  either  rot  in  the  berry  of  the  grape- 
vine or  mildew  on  its  leaves.  Hence  we  understand  why  the  thermal  zone  is  both 
warm  and  dry.  I  will  not  venture  to  say  that  the  grape  will  never  rot  within  the 
limits  of  that  zone,  but  I  can  say  that  the  Catawba  grape  is  altogether  unreliable 
when  planted  in  our  low  valleys,  but  where  the  vines  are  growing  on  the  slopes  of 
the  mountains  they  have  not  failed  to  ripen  their  fruit  for  more  than  30  years,  whether 
the  season  was  wet  or  dry.  It  is  a  fact  that  all  attempts  to  cultivate  the  grape  in 
our  low  damp  valleys  have  utterly  failed,  the  plants  invariably  being  destroyed  by 
mildew  on  the  leaves,  while  the  few  vines  that  grow  upon  the  small  farms  lying 
high  up  on  the  mountain  sides  have  ever  matured  their  fruit  in  the  greatest  perfec- 
tion. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  I  say  confidently  that  any  well-conducted  effort  at  grape 
culture  will  succeed,  whether  it  be  upon  the  slopes  of  our  Alleghauies  or  upon  the 
mountain  sides  that  skirt  the  valleys  of  more  northern  States,  and  all  that  is  required 
to  insure  success  is  to  ascertain  where  this  warm  belt  is,  and  to  plant  the  vine  within 
its  limits. 

In  the  report  of  the  Department  for  1867  mention  is  made  of  the 
great  success  in  grape  culture  in  the  region  near  Harnrnondsport,  Steu- 
beu  County,  New  York.  Here  the  Catawba  and  other  late  grapes  ma- 
ture and  reach  remarkable  perfection,  taking  the  latitude  into  consid- 
eration. These  vineyards  are  mostly  on  hillsides  extending  for  several 
hundred  feet  above  the  valley  and  surface  of  Keuka  Lake.  The  soil  is 
a  drift  formation,  and  the  surface  is  thickly  covered  with  loose  shale. 
The  marked  adaptability  of  this  locality  for  grape  culture  may  be 
attributed  to  its  elevation  and  nature  of  the  soil.  The  general  elevation 
of  the  land  prevents  the  deposition  of  heavy  dews,  and  as  it  is  supple- 
mented by  the  heat  absorbed  during  the  day  by  the  abounding  stony 
Surfaces,  mildew  is  unknown,  and  the  growth  proceeds  unchecked  until 


66 

it  is  arrested  by  frost.  There  is  a  happy  combination  of  favorable  con- 
ditions; the  soil  is  of  a  character  that  insures  a  healthy  but  not  over- 
luxuriant  growth ;  the  young  shoots  commence  to  mature  at  an  early 
period  during  the  summer,  and  when  they  cease  to  lengthen  they  are 
brown  and  hard  up  to  their  extreme  points.  Then  the  fruit  is  fully 
ripened,  and  the  quality  is  of  the  best,  for  thoroughly  ripened  grapes 
can  not  be  gathered  from  immature  growths. 

I  consider  this  matter  of  selecting  good  grape-growing  localities  as 
of  the  greatest  importance  at  the  present  time.  In  all  localities  where 
mildew  prevails  successful  grape  culture  can  not*be  realized  without 
constant  vigilance  in  the  application  of  correctives  and  preventives, 
and  even  these  can  not  always  be  depended  upon.  Failures  will  occur 
under  the  best  management  where  the  environments  are  inimical  to 
best  success,  and  in  no  event  can  an  imperfect  climate  compare  with  a 
perfect  one.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  perfect  localities  for  grape  culture 
can  be  selected  under  climatic  conditions  of  the  most  favorable  char- 
acter for  the  protection  of  the  best  vines,  the  subject  can  not  be  too 
strongly  urged  for  the  consideration  of  cultivators  of  the  grape. 

PROPAGATING  NATIVE  GRAPES. 

For  the  past  few  years  most  of  the  grapes  raised  in  the  garden  have 
been  propagated  in  beds  in  the  open  air.  Hard,  well-ripened  wood  is 
selected  and  made  into  cuttings,  which  are  each  about  4  inches  in 
length.  Whether  the  cutting  contains  one  bud  or  eye,  or  more,  is  not 
important,  and  if  a  single  eye  can  be  obtained  with  3  inches  of  wood 
attached,  it  is  considered  a  good  cutting,  although  lengths  which  are 
under  3  inches  are  looked  upon  as  uncertain  should  the  weather  during 
the  early  portion  of  summer  prove  to  be  hot  and  dry. 

The  ground  is  prepared  by  turning  it  over  to  a  depth  of  12  inches  in 
the  fall,  leaving  it  as  rough  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  effectually 
permeated  by  frosts.  As  early  in  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked 
the  surface  is  carefully  forked  over  and  broken  up  as  minutely  as  prac- 
ticable; it  is  important  that  the  soil  should  be  deeply  pulverized. 

Previous  to  inserting  the  cuttings  the  surface,  is  further  broken  by 
using  a  rake  having  iron  teeth  4  inches  in  length.  This  operation  does 
not  merely  consist  in  raking  over  the  surface,  but  in  pushing  the  rake 
to  and  fro  to  the  full  length  of  the  teeth,  so  as  to  thoroughly  comminute 
the  soil  as  deep  as  they  will  reach. 

The  beds  are  marked  off  in  breadths  of  10  feet,  with  3  feet  wide  alleys 
between.  The  cuttings  are  inserted  in  rows  across  the  beds ;  they  are 
placed  about  2  inches  apart,  and  the  rows  are  formed  about  6  inches 
from  each  other,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  narrow  hoe  to  be  run  between 
them. 

To  avoid  tramping  on  the  soil  a  wide  board  is  used  to  stand  upon 


67 

while  planting  the  cuttings.  The  whole  of  the  catting  is  pushed  into 
the  soil,  so  that  the  upper  bud  or  end  (the  cutting  being  closely  cut 
above  a  bud)  is  level  with  the  surface. 

The  bed  is  afterwards  covered  over  with  a  layer  an  inch  in  depth, 
consisting  of  a  light  friable  soil ;  pure  sand  may  be  used  if  nothing 
better  can  be  procured ;  a  mixture  made  of  ou'e  part  of  sand  and  one- 
half  rotten  tan  bark  is  preferable  to  the  pure  sand ;  swamp  muck,  dried 
and  pulverized,  so  that  the  finer  portions  of  it  can  be  secured  by  sifting, 
forms  the  very  best  material  for  this  purpose.  In  the  garden  of  the 
Department  the  sweepings  of  the  streets  are  sifted  and  used  with  good 
results. 

When  the  buds  of  the  cuttings  commence  to  swell  an  additional  half 
inch  or  more  of  the  covering  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface.  The 
young  shoots  push  vigorously  through  the  surface  dressing,  and  it 
serves  as  a  mulch  to  retain  moisture  during  summer.  Although  the 
cuttings  are  rather  closely  set,  owing  to  the  limited  area  of  the  grounds, 
yet  the  largest  portion  of  the  plants  are  sufficiently  strong  for  perma- 
nent planting  when  1  year  old. 

FOREIGN  GRAPES  IN  GLASS  STRUCTURES. 

The  simplicity  and  certainty  with  which  the  foreign  grape  can  be 
produced  in  glazed  houses  is  not  generally  known.  Many  amateurs, 
whose  success  with  other  fruits  is  quite  satisfactory,  feel  doubtful  of 
their  ability  to  manage  the  exotic  grapery. 

To  those  whose  only  acquaintance  with  the  subject  is  derived'  from 
perusing  publications  on  the  growth  of  the  fruit  the  supposition  of  in- 
ability is  pardonable,  for  there  is  certainly  much  to  appal  the  beginner 
in  perusing  the  various  ideas  of  soil  and  border  making,  the  conflicting 
opinions  relative  to  watering,  and  the  multitudinous,  fussy  details  of 
management  which  he  will  find  in  print. 

So  much  has  been  written  of  late  years  on  this  subject  that  it  would 
not  now  be  referred  to  were  it  not  with  a  hope  that  information  might 
be  imparted  that  would  tend  to  dispel  the  i'lea  of  difficulty  or  mystery 
in  connection  with  the  culture  of  this,  without  exception,  most  economi- 
cal of  fruit  productions.  It  is  well  known  that  in  favorable  locations 
the  Ohasselas,  Black  Hamburg,  and  many  other  of  the  varieties  of  the 
foreign  grape  will  occasionally  produce  perfectly  ripened  fruit  with  no 
further  care  than  that  usually  given  to  the  Isabellas,  or  any  other 
native  variety.  But  although  the  result  may  occasionally  be  reached, 
it  is  well  known  that  all  attempts  to  cultivate  the  foreign  grape  in  the 
open  air  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  sooner  or  later  proved  abor- 
tive. 

That  these  failures  are  attributable  either  to  a  deficiency  of  sunlight 
or  to  a  deficiency  of  summer  heat  are  questions  easily  answered  j  for 


68 

we  find  that  in  the  climate  of  Britain,  where  the  dull,  sunless  days  are 
more  abundant,  and  the  summer  heat  of  less  intensity  and  of  shorter 
duration  than  with  us,  the  Hamburg  and  other  exotic  grapes  ripen 
yearly  trained  on  outside  walls  and  trellises,  and  this  in  a  climate  where 
the  heat  is  not  sufficient  to  mature  Indian  corn,  tomatoes,  or  even 
peaches  in  common  field  culture,  as  with  us.  Neither  can  it  be  sup- 
posed that  our  own  summers  are  too  hot  or  our  winters  too  cold,  as  it 
is  well  known  that  there  is  scarcely  any  plant  that  will  not  withstand 
extremes  of  summer  heat  and  winter  cokl  so  well  as  the  grape  pro- 
vided it  maintains  good  health.  But,  unfortunately,  there  are  climatic 
conditions  here  during  which  the  grape  is  rendered  subject  to  the 
attack  of  fungoids,  by  which  its  growth  is  checked,  the  wood  prevented 
from  maturing,  and  a  general  debility  engendered  which  enfeebles  the 
plant  to  a  degree  that  sooner  or  later  ends  in  its  total  destruction. 

This  tendency  to  mildew  is,  then,  the  only  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
successful  open-air  culture  in  this  section  of  the  best  wine  and  table 
grapes  of  Europe,  and  is  the  only  reason  why  glass  structures  have  to 
be  employed  in  their  culture,  where  an  artificial  temperature,  more  in 
accordance  with  their  requirements,  may  be  maintained.  The  tendency 
to  mildew  in  the  foreign  grape  having  been  found  so  great  a  barrier  to 
its  extended  culture  in  the  open  air,  recourse  was  had  to  glass  houses, 
where  protection  could  be  afforded  and  means  adopted  for  the  exclu- 
sion of  this  malady ;  but  in  many  cases  even  here  success  has  not  been 
equal  to  expectations.  The  mistaken  eagerness  of  many  to  keep  the 
plants  in  an  artificial  instead  of  a  natural  condition  has  led  to  frequent 
failures.  It  appears  very  obvious  that  a  plant  which  occasionally  suc- 
ceeds in  the  absence  of  any  particular  protection  would  be  enabled  to 
do  so  uniformly  by  a  very  slight  additional  care,  provided  that  this 
additional  care  was  bestowed  in  the  proper  direction ;  and  that  such  is 
the  case  has  been  proved  beyond  a  doubt. 

Having  on  another  page  of  this  report  treated  more  particularly  on 
mildew  and  its  origin,  it  may  suffice  to  remark  here,  that  it  is  altogether 
dependent  upon  the  amount  of  atmospheric  moisture  and  proper  venti- 
lation; and  without  proper  attention  to  these  points,  mildew  is  just  as 
likely  to  destroy  the  plants  under  glass  as  it  would  be  those  in  the  open 
air.  Keeping  in  view  that  these  remarks  are  intended  to  refer  to  the 
general  routine  management  of  what  is  now  more  definitely  known  by 
the  term  cold  grapery,  we  will  briefly  allude  to  what  is  considered  the 
main  points  of  treatment. 

The  principal  points,  then,  are  a  low  night  temperature,  exclusive  top 
ventilation,  and  the  constant  presence  of  moisture  available  for  evapo- 
ration. The  baneful  effects  of  a  high  temperature  in  plant  houses  has 
V>eeu  shown  in  previous  reports.  It  has  been  proved  repeatedly  that 
Jow  or  bottom  ventilation  in  a  grapery  is  conducive  tQ  mildew,  and 
aridity  must  be  prevented  by  the  presence  of  moisture. 


69 

It  would  require  considerable  space  to  enter  fully  into  the  elucidation 
of  all  the  principles  involved ;  it  will,  therefore,  be  considered  sufficient 
for  the  present  to  briefly  trace  the  course  of  practice  deduced  from 
many  years7  extended  observation  and  experience  in  the  growth  of  the 
foreign  grape. 

As  soon  as  spring  growth  commences  attention  is  at  once  directed  to 
the  night  temperature,  so  that  it  will  fall  at  least  20°  below  the 
average  heat  in  the  house  during  the  day.  In  dull,  cloudy  weather, 
of  course,  this  difference  between  day  and  night  may  not  be  so  great, 
and  if  the  nights  are  frosty  it  will  be  necessary  to  close  the  house ;  but 
in  the  absence  of  actual  external  freezing  the  ventilators  should  not  be 
wholly  closed,  even  during  the  night.  When  all  danger  from  night 
frosts  is  passed — which  will  vary,  according  to  locality,  from  the  mid- 
dle of  May  to  the  middle  of  June — the  ventilators  may  be  left  open  day 
and  night.  During  dull,  cold  weather  it  may  be  necessary  to  partially 
close  the  ventilation  both  day  and  night ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
same  amount  is  used  day  and  night.  We  have  seen  graperies  where 
the  ventilators  were  never  disturbed  from  the  period  of  blossoming 
until  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  No  constant  anxiety  is,  therefore,  felt 
about  shutting  or  opening  sashes,  and  the  liability  to  create  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  that  frequent  alterations  of  the  ventilators  are 
sure  to  produce,  are  prevented.  The  temperature  of  the  house  will, 
therefore,  participate  in  the  general  changes  of  external  atmosphere, 
and  though  warm  during  sunlight,  will  be  cool  during  darkness.  Dur- 
ing the  warmest  part  of  the  summer  the  day  temperature  may  vary 
from  90°  to  100°  by  day  to  65°  to  80°  during  the  night.  This  lower- 
ing of  temperature  during  darkness  insures  a  hardihood  of  growth 
that  enables  the  plants  to  endure  any  unfavorable  change  that  may 
occur,  without  sustaining  the  least  injury. 

As  air  is  heated  its  capacity  for  abstracting  and  containing  moisture 
increases,  and  unless  the  moisture  is  supplied  from  other  sources  it  will 
be  drawn  from  the  plants.  To  supply  this  evaporation,  the  soil  in  the 
house  should  be  kept  damp  on  the  surface.  Once  a  day  at  least  m 
bright  weather  the  soil  will  require  to  be  sprinkled.  It  is  a  good  rule 
never  to  allow  the  surface  soil  to  be  entirely  dry  until  the  fruit  is  color- 
ing to  ripen ;  but  it  is  important  to  know  that,  unless  in  connection 
with  constantly  night  ventilation,  this  treatment  may  prove  injurious. 

So  far  as  the  management  of  the  atmosphere  is  concerned,  this  is  all 
the  care  required,  and  a  crop  of  grapes  is  thus  as  easily  grown  as  a 
crop  of  potatoes,  only  with  more  certainty,  because  more  under  our 
control. 

With  regard  to  soil,  pruning,  etc.,  we  will  at  present  only  remark, 
that  soil  capable  of  growing  good  cabbages  will  grow  good  grapes,  and 
the  strongest  yearly  growths  give  the  best  fruit. 


70 


INSIDE  BORDERS  FOR  GRAPERIES. 

It  has  been  strenuously  advocated  that  the  soil  in  which  foreign 
grapes  are  grown  should  be  wholly  under  the  glass,  and  many  of  these 
structures  have  been  so  arranged,  but  not  with  successful  or  satisfac- 
tory results.  There  were  two  very  distinct  and  seemingly  weighty  rea- 
sons urged  by  those  who  advocated  this  mode,  first,  that  in  the  case  of 
forcing  houses  it  was  essential  to  have  the  soil  for  the  roots  in  the  same 
temperature  as  the  branches;  and,  second,  that  in  the  case  of  cold 
graperies,  when  the  borders  are  exposed,  the  roots  are  influenced  by 
rains  during  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  retarding  maturity  and  inducing 
rot  in  the  bunches.  These  results  may  be  guarded  against  by  the  use 
of  inside  borders;  nevertheless,  as  ordinarily  managed,  they  have 
proved  failures.  They  are  useful  to  a  certain  extent  where  early- 
forced  fruit  is  an  especial  object  of  culture.  The  plants  will  succeed 
for  a  few  years  very  satisfactorily,  and  by  a  renewal  of  both  plants  and 
soil  from  time  to  time  the  practice  may  be  sustained ;  but,  in  the  man- 
agement of  what  are  termed  cold  graperies,  the  ordinary  warmth  of  the 
soil  is  all-sufficient;  and  as  far  as  regards  the  second  consideration, 
viz,  the  protection  of  the  roots  from  heavy  rains  when  the  crop  is  attain- 
ing maturity,  that  may  be  secured  by  less  costly  expedients ;  light 
wooden  shutters  have  been  used  for  covering  the  borders,  and  when 
the  surface  is  sloping  a  covering  of  leaves  or  straw  will  answer  every 
purpose.  The  main  reason  for  alluding  to  these  borders  here  is  for  the 
purpose  of  noting  that  where  it  is  practicable  to  remove  the  sashes  or 
roof,  so  as  fully  to  expose  the  border  to  the  action  of  the  weather  for  a 
period  extending  from  the  ripening  of  the  wood  until  forcing  again  com- 
mences, it  will  tend  to  maintain  the  healthy  action  of  the  soil  for  a  long 
series  of  years.  Winter  rains,  snows,  and  slight  frosts  are  all  of  great 
benefit,  as  has  been  fully  realized  with  an  inside  grape  border  in  this 
garden. 

THRIPS  OF  GRAPES. 

For  several  years  the  foreign  grapes  under  glass  have  been  severely 
injured  by  thrips.  All  efforts  and  expedients  to  eradicate  them  have 
been  but  partially  effective.  During  the  early  part  of  the  growing  sea- 
son the  insects  could  be  kept  in  check,  either  by  fumigations  with  to- 
bacco, syringing  with  water  in  which  tobacco  had  been  steeped,  or 
spraying  the  foliage  with  a  weak  solution  of  quassia  chips;  but  when 
the  fruit  approached  maturity,  or  rather  when  it  commenced  to  color, 
these  applications  had  to  be  discontinued,  so  that  the  fruit  would  not 
be  rendered  unfit  for  use;  then  the  insects  would  increase  rapidly  and 
injure  the  foliage  so  that  the  fruit  became  comparatively  worthless. 
Further  than  this,  the  annual  destruction  of  the  foliage  before  the 
growth  was  matured  was  gradually  weakening  the  plants,  so  that  their 


71 

utter  destruction  was  only  a  question  of  time  unless  some  means  could 
be  adopted  to  annihilate  the  insects. 

This  means  has  been  adopted.  It  consists  simply  in  covering  the 
floor  of  the  house  with  tobacco-stems,  the  refuse  of  cigar  manufactories; 
this  mulching  proves  quite  effectual,  as,  since  the  application  was  made, 
no  thrips  have  been  seen,  and,  although  the  insect  has  spread  consid- 
erably before  the  tobacco-stems  were  used,  they  rapidly  disappeared 
after  the  application. 

It  is  perhaps  worthy  of  remark  that  since  using  the  tobacco  mulch- 
ing  no  sign  of  mildew  has  been  observed  on  the  grapes.  Of  course  it 
is  known  that  mildew  may  be  avoided  by  strict  attention  to  ventilation, 
but  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  when  the  ventilators  have  to  be 
closed  at  night  and  opened  during  the  morning,  it  is  not  always  prac- 
ticable to  prevent  cold  currents  of  air  from  striking  some  portions  of 
the  foliage,  a  circumstance  which  will  induce  fungus  growths  on  the 
leaves ;  not  the  slightest  indication  of  mildew  has  been  observed  since 
the  tobacco-stems  were  sprinkled  over  the  floor. 

PKOPAGATING  BY  CUTTINGS. 

To  be  successful  in  any  pursuit  it  is  very  necessary  that  we  should 
be  conversant  with  the  rationale  upon  which  our  operations  are 
founded,  and  in  no  horticultural  process  does  this  apply  with  so  much 
force  as  in  plant  propagation  by  cuttings. 

There  is,  however,  much  in  connection  with  this  subject  that  remains 
unexplained.  We  know  not  why  it  is  that  some  plants  will  propagate 
readily,  while  others,  seemingly  of  similar  structure,  with  the  greatest 
tardiness  and  difficulty. 

A  cutting  may  be  described  as  a  portion  of  the  branch  of  a  plant  that 
is  removed  and  placed  in  a  position  to  form  roots,  so  as  to  become  an 
independent  individual,  possessing  all  the  properties  and  being  a  liv- 
ing representation  of  the  original  from  which  it  was  taken.  Cuttings 
are  of  various  kinds.  Young,  tender  shoots,  perfectly  matured  growths, 
and  wood  in  all  stages  of  maturity  intermediate  between  these  ex- 
tremes are  used  for  cuttings. 

The  best  condition  of  wood  growth  also  varies  with  the  kind  of  plant. 
This  is  a  question  that  can  only  be  ascertained  by  experiment.  We 
know  of  no  external  appearance  that  will  indicate  the  special  propor- 
tionate arrangement  of  the  constituents  of  plants  most  favorable  for 
the  formation  of  roots  from  cuttings. 

As  an  extension  of  roots  is  dependent  upon  the  previous  or  simul- 
taneous action  of  foliage,  it  is  found  that  in  general  the  best  shoots 
for  propagation  are  those  possessing  a  considerable  portion  of  the  or- 
ganized matter  consequent  upon  a  ripening  of  wood  growth,  but  in 
which  the  process  of  vegetation  is  still  in  full  operation ;  in  other 
words,  those  shoots  that  have  commenced  to  mature,  but  are  still 


72 

possessed  of  healthy  and  active  foliage,  familiarly  termed  "  half-ripened 
wood." 

The  art  of"  striking  "  cuttings  mainly  consists  in  guarding  against 
the  exhaustion  of  the  sap  of  the  shoot  by  evaporation  until  the  roots 
are  formed  to  support  it. 

The  various  expedients  resorted  to,  such  as  keeping  the  cutting  in 
close  frames,  covering  them  with  bell  glasses,  shading  from  sun,  etc., 
have  for  their  object  the  preservation  of  the  juices  of  the  shoot. 

The  reason  for  the  adoption  of  these  expedients  being  known,  their 
necessity  in  individual  cases  will  be  readily  understood.  The  greatest 
care  is  required  in  the  case  of  young,  tender  cuttings,  and  the  least 
with  those  of  matured  wood.  Cuttings  of  the  latter  frequently  succeed 
when  planted  in  the  open  air  without  further  care  or  attention.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  young  succulent  cutting,  furnished  with  one  or  more 
leaves,  must  be  carefully  guarded  against  excess  of  light  and  aridity. 
Shading  from  bright  sun  will  be  required  to  prevent  the  foliage  from 
wilting,  and  its  surrounding  atmosphere  must  be  sufficiently  moist  to 
prevent  evaporation  from  its  surfaces. 

The  great  stimulants  of  vegetable  life  are  heat,  air,  light,  and  mois- 
ture, and  in  the  management  of  cuttings  these  must  be  regulated  with 
care  and  precision. 

"Under  certain  conditions,  cuttings  will  grow  and  will  produce  a  few 
leaves  without  any  attempt  at  the  formation  of  roots,  while  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances  the  same  kind  of  cuttings  will  produce  roots  with- 
out indicating  the  slightest  symptoms  of  bud  growth.  Heat  is  the 
active  stimulant  of  the  vital  forces  of  plants,  and  when  the  atmosphere 
by  which  they  are  surrounded  is  of  a  comparatively  higher  temperature 
than  the  soil  in  which  they  are  placed,  the  branches  are  excited  before 
the  roots  receive  any  impulse.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  soil  is  warmer 
than  the  air,  the  root-forming  process  will  be  active,  although  the 
branches  show  no  indication  of  growth.  Of  course  neither  of  these 
conditions  can  continue  exclusively  for  any  lengthened  period,  for  with- 
out a  reciprocal  action  all  growth  will  in  time  cease.  These  effects 
are  frequently  illustrated  in  tree  planting  in  spring.  Towards  the  lat- 
ter portion  of  spring  and  the  early  part  of  summer  the  air  is  many  de- 
grees warmer  than  the  soil  ;  the  heated  atmosphere  excites  the  buds, 
and  leaves  are  developed  j  but  the  recently  disturbed  roots  in  the  colder 
soil  have  not  yet  been  excited,  and  are  not  in  a  state  to  supply  the  de- 
mands of  the  foliage,  the  juices  of  the  tree  are  soon  exhausted,  and  the 
promised  healthy  growth  suddenly  and  hopelessly  checked. 

The  main  point  of  consideration,  therefore,  in  the  management  of 
cuttings,  so  far  as  mere  application  of  heat  is  concerned,  is  to  stimulate 
into  action  the  processes  carried  on  in  the  vessels  of  the  cutting  in- 
serted in  the  soil,  while  the  upward  bud  growth  is  retarded.  This  is 
secured  by  heating  the  soil  and  not  heating  the  air.  The  rule  is  that 
cuttings  should  be  kept  in  an  atmospherical  temperature  as  low  as  the 


73 

nature  of  the  plant  will  allow,  and  the  soil  in  which  they  are  inserted 
should  be  as  high  as  the  roots  will  endure.  The  more  completely  these 
conditions  are  maintained  the  greater  the  certainty  of  success,  and  with 
ordinary  care  few  failures  need  occur. 

"  Bottom  heat,"  as  it  is  termed,  or  a  warming  of  the  soil,  may  be  at- 
tained by  various  means.  Those  whose  requirements  are  extensive 
usually  have  a  structure  specially  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  propaga- 
tion, where  the  soil  is  heated  by  hot  water  either  in  pipes  or  wooden 
or  cement  tanks.  The  latter  mode  is  perhaps  the  best ;  but  where  the 
quantity  desired  is  limited  to  the  wants  of  an  ordinary  flower  garden 
or  greenhouse  no  special  structure  need  be  necessary.  A  small  hot 
bed,  with  frame,  will  afford  considerable  convenience ;  and  those  who 
have  a  greenhouse  may  form  one  of  the  best  propagating  shelves 
by  inclosing  a  portion  of  the  heating  channel,  whether  flue  or  pipes,  at 
the  warmest  end,  so  as  to  form  a  tight  chamber,  with  the  heater  pass- 
ing through  it.  Usually  there  is  a  front  shelf  in  greenhouses  over  the 
heating  apparatus,  so  that  by  simply  inclosing  a  space  below  it  an  air- 
chamber  will  be  formed,  where  the  heat  will  collect  and  warm  a  bed  of 
sand  or  soil  laid  on  the  shelf.  For  all  ordinary  purposes  this  will  be 
found  sufficient,  and  the  space  can  be  enlarged  to  suit  the  wants  of  the 
propagator. 

SOWING  SEEDS. 

The  Department  is  frequently  in  receipt  of  letters  wherein  the  writers 
complain  of  their  inability  to  raise  plants  from  seeds  distributed  by  it, 
as  well  as  from  those  procured  from  other  sources.  The  cause  of  fail- 
ure is  at  once  attributed  to  the  quality  of  the  seeds,  and  the  source 
from  whence  they  were  obtained  is  denounced  for  sending  out  a  bad 
article.  It  is  safe  to  state  that  good  seeds  are  the  rule,  and  bad  seeds 
the  rare  exception.  So  far  as  the  Department  is  concerned,  there  is 
proof  of  their  good  qualities,  as  most  of  them  are  germinated  and  the 
plants  grown  here ;  and  every  respectable  seedsman  in  the  country  uses 
all  the  precautions  that  experience  and  business  competition  suggests 
in  order  to  secure  seeds  of  the  best  quality.  The  truth  is  that  they  fail 
to  germinate  because  they  are  improperly  managed ;  and  of  all  the  causes 
of  failure  the  most  frequent  is  that  of  covering  them  too  deeply  with 
soil,  where  they  either  rot,  owing  to  the  excess  of  water  and  want  of  air, 
or  the  feeble  germ  is  unable  to  overcome  the  weight  of  soil  it  has  to 
move  before  reaching  the  light.  The  proper  depth  for  each  seed  must  be 
judged  by  its  appearance.  The  rule  has  been  given  to  cover  with  a  depth 
of  soil  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  seed,  which  is  probably  as  nearly 
correct  and  as  definite  as  can  be  reached.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  in  case 
of  small  seeds,  which  succeed  best  when  merely  scattered  on  the  sur- 
face and  pressed  into  the  soil.  In  the  moist  atmosphere  of  a  greenhouse 
or  similar  structure  they  will  do  very  well;  but  when  sown  in  the  open 


74 

air  expedients  must  be  used  in  order  to  keep  the  earth  suitably  moist, 
such  as  sprinkling  the  surface  with  chaff,  moss,  leaves,  or  straw,  taking 
care  to  remove  immediately  after  the  seeds  germinate.  This  will  also 
prevent  the  soil  from  becoming  hard  and  compact,  and  thereby  obviate 
another  cause  of  failure.  It  is  also  a  fatal  error  to  sow  too  early;  the 
soil  should  be  dry,  friable,  and  warm  in  order  to  excite  germination  and 
maintain  an  uninterrupted  healthy  growth.  Unhealthy  plants  are 
sure  to  result  when  heat  and  moisture  are  presented  in  varying  quanti- 
ties to  the  tender  germ. 

Seeds  that  are  inclosed  in  a  hard  shell  vegetate  most  freely  when  sown 
as  soon  as  ripe.  For  instance,  seeds  of  the  grape,  if  planted  immediately 
when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  will  vegetate  in  a  few  weeks,  but  if  kept  dry 
until  the  following  spring  and  then  sown  but  few  will  vegetate  until 
they  have  lain  in  the  soil  for  twelve  months. 

SEED-SAVING. 

Whether  it  is  best  for  farmers  and  gardeners  to  save  their  own  seed 
or  make  yearly  purchases  depends  very  much  upon  circumstances,  or 
rather  upon  the  particular  kinds  of  seeds  in  question  and  the  manner 
of  saving  them.  Seed-raising  is  a  business  which  requires  skill  in  cul- 
ture and  great  discriminating  knowledge,  which  can  only  be  acquired 
by  observant  practice.  As  a  general  rule  it  is  cheaper  in  the  long  run 
to  buy  seeds  than  attempt  to  save  them ;  this  remark  applies  with 
greater  force  to  the  seeds  of  improved  varieties  than  species  which  are 
reproduced  with  more  certainty  from  seeds.  It  is  one  of  the  great  arts 
in  seed-raising  to  keep  varieties  true  to  their  descriptive  peculiarities, 
and  with  some  kinds  of  seeds  this  requires  an  amount  of  attention  and 
labor  of  which  the  majority  of  those  who  purchase  seeds  have  but  a 
faint  conception.  As  an  example  we  will  specify  the  cabbage,  and  in 
the  first  place  we  would  remark  that  it  is  now  held  that  cabbage  seed 
raised  near  the  seacoast  is  always  better  than  that  raised  inland  ;  so 
confident  of  this  are  the  market  gardeners  around  New  York  that  they 
endeavor  to  procure  their  early  cabbage  seed  from  growers  on  the  east- 
ern Atlantic  side- of  Long  Island.  The  seed  raiser  is,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  very  careful  as  to  the  seeds  he  sows  for  his  cabbage  crop ;  but 
in  order  that  any  variety  should  be  maintained  as  near  to  its  perfection 
as  possible,  the  crop  is  carefully  inspected  after  the  plants  have  headed, 
and  all  those  that  do  not  come  up  to  the  perfect  standard  in  regard  to 
compactness,  size,  shape,  and  time  of  heading  are  destroyed,  and  only 
those  which  pass  inspection  are  retained.  The  seed  dealer  who  acquires 
a  reputation  for  care  and  accuracy  in  this  matter  can  sell  his  seed  at 
highly  remunerative  prices,  which  may  be  double  the  amount  asked  by 
others  for  the  same  variety,  but  which  has  been  carelessly  and  indis- 
criminately saved.  Varieties  must  always  be  grown  very  widely  apart 
for  seed,  for  so  far  as  bees  can  fly  there  is  danger  of  crossing  with  other 


75 

and  inferior  kinds.  Of  course  any  farmer  or  gardener  who  uses  the 
same  precautions  can  have  similar  results,  but  where  the  attempt  is 
made  to  grow  several  varieties  in  one  field  the  distinctive  characteris- 
tics of  each  variety  can  not  be  maintained. 

Climates  have  also  much  to  do  in  the  matter  of  seed-saving.  When 
seeds  are  grown  in  a  climate  unsuited  to  their  best  maturity  they  will 
perpetuate  a  weak  progeny.  For  example,  the  oat  plant  requires  a 
cool,  moist  climate  for  its  perfect  development ;  hence  seed  oats  grown 
in  a  warm,  dry  climate  are  very  inferior.  In  countries  suited  to  the 
plant  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  seed  that  will  weigh  45  pounds  and  more 
per  bushel.  Yet  these  heavy  seeds  if  sown  in  the  middle  States  will 
rapidly  deteriorate ;  no  matter  how  carefully  crops  may  be  managed 
an  annual  shortage  will  be  found  both  in  the  quantity  and  quality.  In 
cases  of  this  kind  it  is  the  best  economy  to  procure  seeds  from  the  best 
localities,  for  no  efforts  towards  acclimation  will  prove  of  any  value. 

But  in  climates  entirely  suited  to  the  growth  and  full  development 
of  a  plant  it  is  possible  to  gradually  improve  its  qualities  by  carefully 
selecting  seeds  from  the  most  perfect  plants  only,  and  this  is  within  the 
reach  of  every  person  who  desires  to  save  his  own  seeds. 

Then  the  question  of  cost  may  be  considered.  Those  who  make  a 
business  of  growing  seeds  can  do  so  much  more  advantageously  in  most 
cases  than  the  amateur  in  this  line.  We  know  that  there  is  often  much 
complaint  about  bad  seeds,  but  in  most  instances  these  complaints  have 
originated  through  bad  management  in  sowing.  The  most  common 
mistakes  are  those  of  covering  the  seeds  too  deeply  with  soil  and  negli- 
gence in  firming  the  surface  after  the  seeds  are  sown  ;  rolling  the  sur- 
face after  seeding  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  seeding. 

ROTATION  IN  CROPPING. 

It  may  be  surmised  that  the  necessity  for  rotation  of  crops  soon  be- 
came  apparent  to  the  earlier  cultivators.  They  would  discover  that 
their  best  efforts  in  appliances  were  unavailable  in  maintaining  a  con- 
tinuous profitable  growth  of  the  same  kind  of  plant  on  the  same  soil. 
When  soils  became  unproductive  it  was  supposed  that  the  land  required 
rest,  hence  the  practice  of  fallowing  was  introduced.  Fallowing  was 
a  common  practice  among  the  Romans.  It  was  their  usual  course  to 
allow  the  land  to  rest  after  each  crop — a  crop  and  a  year's  fallow  suc- 
ceeding each  other.  Where  manure  was  applied  two  crops  were  taken, 
and  on  some  lands  several  crops  were  taken  between  the  fallowing 
periods.  It  was  a  very  natural  deduction  that  the  land  required  rest 
when  observation  showed  that  after  successive  crops  of  the  same  plant 
it  refused  to  grow,  although  the  land  had  not  apparently  diminished  in 
fertility. 

The  agriculture  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  being  confined  to  the  banks 
and  lowlands  adjacent  to  rivers,  where  from  annual  overflows  a  rich 


76 

deposit  of  mud  and  sand  was  left  on  the  surface,  which  formed  an  an- 
nual layer  of.  fresh  material,  did  not  include  the  process  of  fallowing  or 
resting  lands,  because  constant  fertility  was  maintained  by  the  annual 
top  dressing  which  was  left  by  receding  waters. 

The  practice  of  resting  and  fallowing  soils,  or  that  of  changing  the 
crops  more  or  less  systematically,  has  always  been  tound  to  be  advan- 
tageous, although  the  reasons  for  its  necessity  have  not  been  satisfac- 
torily explained. 

Various  theories  have  been  offered  by  physiologists  explanatory  of 
the  principles  upon  which  the  benefits  of  rotative  cropping  depends. 
Modern  chemistry  has  shown  that  plants  require  certain  mineral  sub- 
stances for  their  support,  and  that  although  the  same  primary  elements 
may  be  found  in  all,  yet  they  are  found  to  be  in  very  difterent  propor- 
tions in  different  kinds,  some  showing  a  mere  trace  of  a  substance  which 
may  abound  in  others.  These  mineral  matters  being  obtained  from  the 
soil,  it  follows  that  if  they  are  not  present  in  sufficient  quantities,  or  do 
not  exist  in  a  sufficiently  soluble  state  so  as  to  be  taken  up  by  the  roots, 
the  plant  which  demands  them  for  its  normal  growth  must  suffer  in 
consequence  of  such  deficiency  5  and  in  regard  to  specific  inorganic 
substances,  it  is  evident  that  the  plant  which  requires  a  large  percent- 
age of  such  would  fail  to  succeed  where  another  plant  requiring  only 
a  trace  of  the  substance  would  maintain  a  healthy  growth.  Some 
plants  require  much  potash  or  soda,  some  much  lime,  others  a  large 
proportion  of  silica.  A  rotation  which  would  allow  these  plants  to  fol- 
low each  other  in  succesion,  or  cause  one  crop  which  requires  only  a 
small  quantity  of  any  particular  inorganic  substance  to  succeed  another 
which  requires  that  substance  in  large  amount,  would  consequently  be 
beneficial. 

Taking  these  facts  as  a  basis,  the  theory  is  propounded  that  the  ne- 
cessity for  a  rotation  of  crops  is  caused  by  the  exhaustion  of  certain 
inorganic  substances  which,  if  supplied  in  due  quantities,  would  insure 
the  successful  growth  of  the  same  plant  on  the  same  soil  for  an  indefi 
nite  period.  But  in  the  absence  of  the  knowledge  indispensably  nec- 
essary for  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  exact  quantities  required,  a  sys- 
tem of  rotation  is  not  only  advisable  but  it  is  the  only  resource  of  the 
cultivator  until  science  determines  the  exact  specific  relations  ^hich 
exist  between  the  plant  and  the  soil  from  whence  it  receives  its  food. 

The  deductions  naturally  following  the  above  explanation  regarding 
plant  food  led  to  the  supposition  that  chemical  analysis  would  indicate 
with  a  degree  of  certainty  the  exact  line  of  practice  to  be  followed  in 
regard  to  rotation  of  crops,  or  perhaps  obviate  the  necessity  for  any 
change  except  that  of  convenience.  This  was  to  be  effected  by  analyz- 
ing the  soil  and  the  plant  to  be  grown  in  it,  so  that  the  ingredients 
removed  by  the  latter  could  be  replaced,  and  thus  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  indefinitely  maintained.  But  at  present  there  are  no  indications 
that  such  accurate  knowledge  is  forthcoming,  neither  the  analyses  of 


77 

soils  nor  the  analyses  of  plants  furnishing  the  data  seemingly  neces- 
sary for  practical  purposes. 

The  phenomena  attending  tbe  growth  of  certain  crops  for  a  series  of 
years  on  the  same  soil  apparently  includes  certain  factors  that  are  not 
readily  explained.  For  instance,  it  is  observed  that  even  in  the  case  of 
such  humble  plants  as  the  petunia  and  verbena,  if  they  are  continued 
for  a  few  years  in  the  same  ground  they  will  cease  to  give  satisfaction, 
even  although  the  soil  is  annually  manured  with  ground  bones,  rotted 
stable"  manure,  or  other  kinds  of  ordinary  manurial  applications.  In 
flower  gardens,  when  it  is  desired  to  grow  these  plants  year  after  year 
in  the  same  spot,  it  is  found  necessary  to  renew  the  soil  yearly  by  re- 
moving 6  or  8  inches  from  the  surface  and  replacing  it  by  fresh  earth 
from  other  sources. 

The  same  results  have  been  found  in  the  culture  of  the  grape.  For  a 
number  of  years  past  it  has  been  customary  for  the  Department  to 
propagate  several  thousands  of  plants,  embracing  many  varieties  of 
native  grapes.  These  are  mostly  grown  from  single-eye  cuttings  in 
sand  beds  under  glass,  and  placed  singly  in  pots  when  rooted.  About 
the  end  of  May  they  are  turned  out  of  the  pots  and  planted  out  in  the 
open  field  rather  closely  in  rows  which  are  about  3  feet  apart.  When 
they  have  finished  growth  for  the  season  they  are  lifted  and  removed 
from  the  field,  the  ground  receives  a  coating  of  rotted^  manure,  which 
is  either  plowed  in  or  worked  with  a  spade,  leaving  the  surface  rough, 
to  be  acted  upon  by  the  frost.  In  the  following  spring  the  surface  is 
again  worked  over  and  the  soil  placed  in  good  order  for  planting.  At 
the  proper  period  young  grapes  are  again  planted  as  before.  These  are 
removed  at  the  end  of  the  season,  and  the  ground  receives  similar 
treatment  to  that  of  the  previous  year.  Notwithstanding  this  treat- 
ment the  third  crop  is  very  indifferent,  and  if  a  fourth  crop  is  planted 
it  will  prove  to  be  an  entire  failure. 

Experience  shows  that  by  selecting  a  field  which  has  never  been 
occupied  with  grapes  the  young  plants  will  make  an  average  growth  of 
about  4  feet  in  length  the  first  year ;  the  average  growth  of  the  second 
year  will  reach  about  2  feet;  the  growth  of  the  third  year  will  be  ex- 
ceedingly weak,  the  best  plants  reaching  to  about  18  inches  in  length, 
many  weak  kinds  not  reaching  the  length  of  I  foot. 

This  result  of  diminishing  yearly  growths  has  not  been  sensibly 
affected  by  the  application  of  different  manures,  and  the  question  nat- 
urally arises  that  if  a  deterioration  of  growth  becomes  so  marked  in  so 
short  a  time,  and  with  such  attention  to  the  soil,  what  may  be  expected 
when  acres  are  closely  planted  with  grapes,  as  in  the  case  with  vine- 
yards, where  the  entire  soil  speedily  becomes  filled  with  roots  *?  It  need 
not  be  a  matter  for  surprise  if  vineyards  become  unproductive  after 
producing  several  unsatisfactory  crops. 

It  is  well  known  that  nurserymen  who  pride  themselves  in  maintain- 
ing a  high  standard  of  quality  jn  their  stpck  of  pear  or  other  kinds  of 


78 

fruit  trees  are  careful  not  to  attempt  to  grow  two  successive  crops  on 
the  same  land.  Even  after  employing  all  kinds  and  qualities  of  ma- 
nures that  their  skill  and  experience  may  suggest,  the  quality  of  their 
young  stock  will  depreciate  if  grown  on  the  same  soil  unless  long  peri- 
ods elapse  between  the  rotations.  These  and  facts  of  a  similar  kind 
might  be  assumed  as  an  indication  that  there  may  be  some  as  yet  un- 
recognized cause  that  exerts  an  influence  in  plant  nutrition. 

Many  years  ago  the  hypothesis  was  advanced  that  plants  secrete  or 
form  certain  matters  during  their  growth  which  they  exude  by  their 
roots,  and  the  accumulation  of  these  ingredients  in  the  soil  exercises  an 
injurious  influence  upon  future  crops  of  the  same  plants,  but  does  not 
prevent  the  growth  of  plants  of  a  different  kind.  It  was  even  surmised 
that  the  exudations  of  one  species  furnished  nutritious  matters  for  a 
different  species,  and  for  this  reason  a  rotation  of  crops  becomes  advan- 
tageous and  furnishes  an  explanation  for  the  benefits  consequent  upon 
the  practice. 

The  experiments  and  explanations  brought  forward  in  behalf  of  this 
hypothesis  have  not  been  considered  sufficiently  conclusive  to  establish 
a  theory  upon  which  to  base  any  definite  action,  and  has  not  of  late 
years  been  entertained  as  a  factor  worthy  of  consideration  in  the  study 
of  plant  life  or  as  pertaining  to  plant  culture.  And  yet  every  practical 
cultivator  must  have  observed  phenomena  in  the  course  of  his  practice 
which  appears  to  be  more  readily  explained  upon  the  supposition  of  the 
formation  of  some  injurious  matters  than  from  the  exclusive  action  of 
exhaustion  ;  and  this  may  occur  without  conceding  that  there  is  neces- 
sarily any  function  of  an  excretory  character  in  the  roots  of  plants. 

If  we  attempt  to  remove  a  silver  maple  tree  of  3  or  4  years'  growth 
from  the  seed  we  will  find  that  the  soil  closely  surrounding  the  stem 
and  circling  for  several  feet  beyond  it  is  filled  with  small  fibrous  roots, 
mostly  dead ;  active  spougioles  will  be  found  mainly  at  the  extremities 
of  the  larger  or  main  roots.  But  if  we  take  a  tree  of  the  same  species 
which  has  attained  the  age  of  10  years  and  dig  similarly  around  its 
stem,  we  will  not  find  so  many  roots  as  in  the  case  of  the  younger  tree, 
but  instead  we  will  find  a  few  large  roots  which  are  destitute  of  fibers 
except  at  their  extremities.  It  seems  evident  that  there  is  an  annual 
decay  of  these  fibrous  roots,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  the  decom- 
position of  this  mass  of  fiber  may  not  be  obnoxious  to  the  plants  which 
produced  it,  and  at  the  same  time  not  be  injurious  to  plants  of  a  differ- 
ent species. 

Instructions  relative  to  the  removal  and  replanting  of  trees  are  usually 
very  explicit  in  regard  to  the  special  necessity  of  protecting  the  small 
fibrous  roots  because  of  their  great  importance  to  the  future  growth  of 
the  plant.  In  reality  these  roots  are  of  no  value  after  they  are  sep- 
arated from  the  soil,  as  they  immediately  decay  on  removal.  The 
larger  roots,  if  healthy  and  their  outer  bark  uninjured,  are  only  to  be 
depended  upon  for  the  emission  of  an  abundance  of  fresh  and  vigorous 
spougioles. 


79 

It  will  be  admitted  that  examples  can  be  found  where  the  same  crop 
has  succeeded  measurably  well  on  the  same  soil  for  a  series  of  years, 
but  close  observation  and  accurate  comparisons  will  show  that  such 
instances  are  rare  indeed ;  but  even  the  successes  have  not  enabled  us 
to  remedy  the  failures,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  causes  have  not 
been  fully  explained. 

EXPEDIENTS  FOR  PROMOTING  FRUITFULNESS  IN  PLANTS. 

All  expedients  for  inducing  early  fruiting  are  founded  upon  the  well- 
known  law  that  excessive  growth  and  great  prolificness  can  not  simul- 
taneously exist  in  the  same  plant.  Some  of  the  most  familiar  modes  of 
inducing  fruit  are  as  under: 

BY  DWARFING. 

In  horticultural  parlance,  trees  are  said  to  be  dwarfed  when  grafted 
or  budded  on  stocks  of  weaker  growth  than  themselves.  Thus  we  have 
the  pear  on  the  quince,  the  cherry  ou  the  mahaleb,  the  apple  on  the 
Paradise  stock,  the  peach  on  the  plum,  etc.  This  is  a  popular  and  effi- 
cient mode  of  rendering  trees  fruitful.  Properly  speaking,  any  low 
tree  is  dwarf;  the  term  when  applied  to  a  system  is  merely  technical. 

BY  BENDING   THE   BRANCHES. 

This  process  practically  consists  in  allowing  the  branches  of  a  young 
tree  to  grow  undisturbed  by  the  pruning  knife  for  several  years  until 
the  plant  attains  considerable  size ;  the  young  shoots  are  then  bent 
down  and  secured  to  pegs  fastened  in  the  ground.  This  mode  is  emi- 
nently adapted  for  standard  pear  trees,  especially  such  varieties  as 
Dix,  Bartlett,  Sheldon,  and  others  that  make  long  yearly  shoots.  These 
when  bent  down  soon  become  studded  thickly  with  blossom  spurs,  and 
very  ornamental  and  symmetrical  trees  can  be  formed  by  a  little  atten- 
tion to  the  bending  and  regulating  the  shoots ;  the  pendent  form  soon 
becomes  fixed,  and  trees  so  treated  are  certain  to  be  productive,  The 
proper  season  to  commence  tying  down  is  the  month  of  August;  the 
young  wood  will  then  be  sufficiently  matured  to  bend,  and  many  of  the 
most  forward  buds  will  form  short  fruit  spurs,  and  bloom  the  following 
spring.  Trees  and  plants  of  all  kinds  can  be  incited  to  flower  and  fruit, 
no  matter  how  luxuriant  their  growth,  by  careful  observance  of  the 
bending  process.  Horizontal  training  is  a  modification  of  this  system, 
and  is  a  well-known  method  of  encouraging  fruitfuluess. 

BY  PRUNING   THE   ROOTS. 

When  a  tree  has  reached  a  fruit-bearing  size,  and  shows  no  symptoms 
of  a  fruit-bearing  disposition,  but  instead  throws  out  vigorous  branches, 
root-pruning  is  a  very  efficacious  mode  of  checking  growth.  In  highly 
cultivated  gardens,  where  trees  are  planted  and  the  roots  have  access 
to  the  rich  soil,  an  immense  crop  of  branches  will  be  produced,  but 


80 

little  if  any  fruit.  Boot-pruning  will  check  such  growths  most  effectu- 
ally and  render  the  trees  fruitful.  The  operation  is  performed  by  dig- 
ging out  a  circular  trench  at  a  distance  of  from  3  to  6  feet  from  the 
stem,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree,  and  cutting  all  the  roots  that 
are  encountered  or  can  be  reached.  The  soil  is  again  thrown  back  and 
the  process  is  completed.  If  done  in  August,  the  supply  of  sap  will 
immediately  be  lessened,  the  wood-maturing  principle  accelerated,  the 
fruit  buds  formed.  The  operation  has  beeu  performed  in.  spring  with 
but  little  benefit,  but  if  done  in  the  fall  can  not  fail  in.  producing  the 
desired  results. 

Root-pruning  has  been  successfully  applied  to  young  evergreens  that, 
in  consequence  of  growing  late  in  fall,  are  liable  to  have  the  points  of 
shoots  injured  by  early  frost.  When  growth  is  stopped  by  root-prun- 
ing the  shoots  mature  sufficiently  to  withstand  the  winter  without  be- 
ing injured.  A  few  years  of  such  treatment  when  the  plant  is  young 
is  found  sufficient,  as  the  specimen  will  attain  hardihood  with  age. 

BY  RINGING  THE  BRANCHES. 

This  operation  is  performed  by  removing  a  ring  of  the  bark  from  a 
branch,  so  as  to  arrest  circulation.  This,  however,  is  done  with  a  view 
to  hastening  the  ripening  process  of  fruit,  and  has  long  been  practiced, 
particularly  on  the  grape  vine.  It  is,  however,  of  doubtful  utility,  as 
the  branch  beyond  the  point  of  operation  is  destroyed.  It  has  the  effect 
of  not  only  hastening  the  ripening,  but  the  fruit  will  be  somewhat  in- 
creased in  size.  Grapes  produced  in  this  manner  are  easily  recognized 
by  their  thick  skins  and  the  coarse  texture  of  the  fruit. 

BY  LIMITING  ROOT   GROWTH. 

The  most  satisfactory  application  of  the  principle  is  that  of  restrict- 
ing the  growth  by  confining  the  roots  in  pots,  boxes,  or  other  similar 
conveniences,  as  is  well  exemplified  by  the  great  crops  produced  on 
fruit  trees  in  pots.  Florists  are  also  alive  to  the  fact  that  their  flower- 
ing plants  will  blossom  most  profusely  when  the  pots  become  well  filled 
with  roots. 

IMPORTANCE  OP  A  UNIFORM  SUPPLY  OF  WATER  IN  PLANT 

CULTURE. 

If  there  is  any  one  element  in  plant  growth  of  more  importance  than 
another  it  is  water.  Crops  usually  fail  or  succeed  in  proportion  as  they 
receive  an  equal  distribution  or  uniform  supply  of  this  element.  Fail- 
ures are  more  frequently  referred  either  to  a  deficiency  or  a  surplus  of 
rainfalls  than  to  any  other  cause.  Hence  one  of  the  chief  essentials  to 
culture  is  to  maintain  the  presence  of  a  proper  amount  of  available 
water  to  crops,  and,  as  far  as  practicable,  guard  against  excess  on  either 
side.  And  this  is  entirely  within  the  control  of  the  cultivator.  The  three 
operations  of  draining,  subs,  piling,  and  middling,  when  properly  undef- 


81 

stood,  comprise  all  the  requisites  of  success,  and  enable  him  in  a  very 
great  measure  to  regard  with  comparative  indifference  whether  the 
season  prove  unusually  wet  or  unusually  dry ;  if  the  former,  the  drains 
remove  all  superfluous  water,  and  the  loosening  of  the  subsoil  allows 
the  egress  of  water  through  all  its  pores,  which  are  speedily  filled  ;  and 
mulching  the  surface,  so  as  to  prevent  evaporation,  retains  the  water 
where  plants  can  reach  it,  instead  of  its  being  rapidly  consumed  by 
drying  winds  sweeping  over  the  soil. 

Of  all  operations  relating  to  soil  culture,  there  are  none  whose  values 
are  so  well  established  as  these,  and  yet  they  are  operations  to  which 
the  great  majority  of  cultivators  are  strangers.  Crops  may  be  deluged, 
starved,  for  want  of  proper  depths  of  soil,  or  burned  up  by  drought  and 
heat,  yet  the  well-known  remedies  against  such  extremes  are  practically 
ignored. 

Objectors  to  draining  frequently  argue  that  in  a  climate  subject  to 
long-continued  droughts  His  worse  than  useless, as  it  would  still  further 
increase  the  evils  resulting  from  a  deficient  supply  of  moisture.  It 
seems  not  to  be  generally  understood  that  draining  in  connection  with, 
proper  culture  increases  the  capability  of  the  soil  for  absorbing  and 
retaining  moisture.  Place  a  sponge  in  a  vessel  and  sprinkle  it  with 
water;  fora  time  it  will  all  be  absorbed,  but  as  soon  as  the  pores  are 
tilled  it  ceases  to  be  taken  up.  Soils  act  in  a  similar  manner.  They 
also  have  their  respective  absorbing  capacities,  varying  of  course  ac- 
cording to  their  nature,  whether  a  compact  clay  or  a  peaty  morass.  The 
last  is  of  such  an  absorbent  character  as  to  be  called  spongy.  The  ob- 
ject in  draining  is  simply  to  allow  the  superfluous  water  to  pass  off. 
No  water  can  reach  the  drains  until  the  pores  of  the  soil  are  satisfied 
or  filled.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  deeper  the  soil  is  drained  the 
greater  becomes  the  reservoir  of  contained  moisture,  so  that  on  soils  of 
gravely  or  sandy  nature  a  more  luxuriant  vegetation  will  be  produced 
after  they  are  artificially  drained.  With  clay  soils  this  improvement 
is  still  more  obvious ;  no  good  clay  soil  can  be  considered  in  best  crop- 
ping condition  until  drained.  Tillage,  manures,  and  seed  are  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  wasted  on  the  best  clays  without  this  fundamental  improve- 
ment. 

The  utility  of  deepening  the  soil  can  not  be  questioned.  In  common 
parlance,  a  good  soil  is  seldom  mentioned  without  the  addition  of  the 
word  deep,  thus  testifying  to  the  value  of  this  property,  yet  how  few 
make  any  attempt  to  deepen  a  shallow  soil.  The  probability  of  bring- 
ing to  the  surface  a  poor  strata  has  been  given  in  argument  against 
subsoiling.  Even  if  this  were  the  result  it  would  be  an  additional 
reason  in  favor  of  the  process,  as  it  would  place  the  soil  where  it  can  be 
enriched  ;  but  subsoiling  proper  only  loosens  the  under  strata.  Trench- 
ing, which  implies  a  reversal  of  the  soil,  may  occasionally  afford  grounds 
for  this  objection,  at  least  for  a  time,  until  it  becomes  properly  amel- 
iorated. 

28581 6 


82 

Draining  and  subsoiling  therefore  increase  the  amount  of  available 
moisture  in  the  soil.  To  keep  it  there  for  the  benefit  of  vegetation,  and 
prevent  its  escape  by  mere  surface  evaporation,  we  have  recourse  to 
mulching.  As  it  is  generally  known,  this  operation  consists  in  cover- 
ing the  soil  with  any  loose  material,  such  as  straw,  wood  chips,  tan 
bark,  etc.,  and  although  it  may  not  be  practicable  to  carry  out  this 
process  to  any  great  extent  in  agriculture,  yet  in  orcharding,  and  in- 
deed all  tree  culture,  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  small  fruits,  it  is  a  com- 
mendable practice,  the  advantages  of  which  are  well  authenticated. 
Especially  in  newly  formed  plantations  is  its  great  value  conspicuous ; 
not  only  is  evaporation  arrested,  but  the  soil  is  secured  against  the 
compacting  effects  of  heavy  rainfalls,  weeds  are  kept  down,  and  root 
growth  encouraged.  But  where  it  is  not  expedient  to  apply  foreign 
matter  to  the  surface  an  efficient  substitute  can  be  had  in  the  soil  it- 
self by  simply  keeping  the  surface  loose  by  cultivation.  A  few  inches 
of  loose,  powdery  soil  on  the  surface  forms  a  capital  nonconducting 
stratum,  and  likewise  has  the  great  advantage  of  being  easily  secured. 

It  can  not  be  too  often  repeated  that  the  three  cardinal  operations  in 
soil  culture  are  drainage,  subsoiliug,  and  mulching. 

LIQUID  MANUKE  FOE  PLANTS  IN  POT  CULTCTEE. 

The  importance  of  liquid  manure  in  general  cultivation  is  acknowl- 
edged, but  the  expense  of  its  application  on  an  extensive  scale,  such  as 
to  farm  crops,  furnishes  a  strong  reason  against  its  use. 

It  is  also  asknowledged  that  the  liquid  state  is  the  best  in  which  stim- 
ulating and  fertilizing  ingredients  can  be  presented  to  the  roots,  as  they 
can  absorb  nourishment  only  through  the  medium  of  water,  and  all 
matters  that  enter  into  the  interior  of  plants  must  be  in  a  soluble  con- 
dition, or  so  minutely  divided  as  to  be  carried  along  with  the  water 
before  they  can  enter  into  the  vessels  of  the  plant. 

In  the  pot  culture  of  plants,  where  the  amount  of  soil  is  limited,  the 
use  of  liquid  manure  is  of  vast  service  when  judiciously  applied,  but 
much  harm  may  be  occasioned  by  its  indiscriminate  use.  Many  persons 
consider  it  necessary  to  resort  to  the  use  of  guano  and  other  solutions 
on  sickly  plants,  and  are  surprised  to  find  that  the  application  only 
hastens  the  dissolution  of  the  patient. 

It  is  only  healthy  and  well-rooted  plants  that  are  to  be  benefited  by 
manures,  and  such  as  are  supplied  with  hungry  roots  but  growing 
slowly  for  want  of  nutriment.  Such  plants  as  have  been  for  years  in 
the  same  pot  or  tub,  as  we  frequently  find  orange  and  lemon  trees, 
camelias,  oleanders,  etc.,  will  be  greatly  stimulated  by  the  application 
of  manurial  liquids  during  their  period  of  growth.  For  plants  of  all 
kinds  that  have  their  pots  filled  with  roots  it  will  be  serviceable,  and 
to  such  as  fuchsias,  pelargoniums,  cineraries,  etc.,  while  in  flower,  they 
will  bloom  longer  and  in  greater  perfection.  But  it  should  be  kept  in 


83 

that  stimulants  should  not  be  applied  while  flower  buds  are  form- 
ing, as  it  might  induce  an  increased  wood  growth  at  the  expense  of  the 
flowering  principle. 

Manurial  liquids  may  be  applied  most  freely  when  growth  is  active, 
discontinued  during  the  formation  of  flower  buds,  and  applied  more 
sparingly  during  the  expansion  of  the  blossom.  It  is  a  safe  rule  to 
dilute  severely  and  use  the  solution  in  a  perfectly  clear  state.  Thick, 
muddy  water  will  not  be  of  much  benefit  and  stops  up  the  pores  in  the 
soil,  preventing  free  action  of  atmospheric  gases  to  the  roots. 

Almost  any  substance  that  has  manurial  properties  and  will  dissolve 
readily  may  be  rendered  available.  Every  greenhouse  or  conservatory 
should  have  a  barrel  fitted  for  the  purpose.  If  furnished  with  a  false 
bottom  or  close  wire  and  a  tap  between  it  and  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
for  drawing  out  the  liquid,  manure  water  can  be  easily  prepared. 

FLOWER  POTS. 

The  relative  value  of  hard-burned  and  soft  or  porous  flower  pots,  so 
far  as  culture  of  plants  is  concerned,  is  a  subject  of  occasional  inquiry. 
Hard-burned  pots  are  not  generally  esteemed  and  many  persons  con- 
sider them  unfit  for  the  best  results  of  plant  culture,  while  others  find 
no  objection  to  them,  and  use  indiscriminately  glazed  pots  or  even 
slate  tubs  when  they  can  be  procured.  The  only  difference  seems  to 
be  that  the  porous  pots  require  more  water  than  will  be  found  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  hard-burned  pots  or  slate  tubs.  The  porous  pot 
will  part  with  much  water  by  evaporation  from  its  sides,  especially 
when  exposed  to  the  sun  or  a  dry  atmosphere.  In  a  dry  atmosphere 
the  hard,  close-grained  pot  will  retain  more  moisture  in  the  soil.  Plants, 
therefore,  require  water  less  frequently  in  the  hard  pots ;  and  in  the 
ordinary  greenhouse,  where  a  considerable  amount  of  humidity  gen- 
erally prevails,  special  care  will  be  required  in  order  that  water  is  not 
given  in  excess.  The  same  amount  of  water  applied  to  plants  of  simi- 
lar size  and  vigor,  some  of  which  are  in  hard  and  others  in  soft  pots, 
will  speedily  show  unhealthiuess  in  those  in  the  hard  pots.  It  is  per- 
fectly practicable  to  grow  plants  equally  well  either  in  soft  or  in  hard 
pots,  but  the  details  of  management  are  different,  and  to  those  who 
are  not  experts  in  plant  culture  the  porous  pots  will  be  most  suitable. 

NIGHT  TEMPERATURE  IN  GLASS  STRUCTURES. 

One  of  the  most  prevalent  and  injurious  errors  in  the  management  of 
greenhouses  and  other  plant  houses  is  that  of  keeping  the  temperature 
too  high  during  the  night.  With  many  the  aim  seems  to  be  to  main- 
tain as  high  a  degree  of  heat  during  the  darkness  as  during  light,  a 
practice  opposed  both  to  science  and  the  results  of  experience,  and  one 
that  can  not  be  too  severely  condemned. 


84 

It  has  been  observed  that  plants  will  lengthen  very  fast  during  dark- 
ness in  a  high,  moist  atmosphere,  and  it  has  therefore  been  supposed 
that  a  gain  in  growth  is  thus  secured;  but  strictly  this  is  not  the  fact. 
Any  extension  of  growth  made  under  such  conditions  is  at  the  expense  of 
that  made  during  the  presence  of  light,  as  it  is  only  then  that  those 
chemical  changes  are  in  operation  that  change  the  matters  absorbed  by 
the  roots  into  the  woody  fiber  and  other  constituents  of  plants.  Conse- 
quently the  same  quantity  of  material  is  simply  elongated,  as  in  draw- 
ing out  a  wire,  which  may  be  lengthened  without  adding  anything  to 
its  structure. 

Plants  grown  in  a  nearly  uniform  temperature  under  glass  seldom 
ripen  or  mature  their  wood  in  a  thorough  manner;  the  buds  are  imma- 
ture and  make  feeble  growth,  and  the  whole  plant  contracts  a  delicate 
habit  of  constitution,  which  renders  it  incapable  of  withstanding  the 
slightest  neglect  without  injury,  thus  entailing  great  care  to  keep  it, 
even  in  its  sickly  condition,  and  never  by  any  means  developing  its 
natural  capacities.  On  the  contrary,  plants  constantly  subjected  to  a 
suitable  lowering  of  night  temperature  are  more  robust,  have  short- 
jointed  and  matured  growths,  flowers  not  only  expand  more  fully,  but 
remain  longer  in  perfection,  fruits  better  colored  and  flavored  and  more 
perfect  in  every  respect  than  those  developed  in  an  atmosphere  of  uni- 
form heat  and  moisture. 

With  regard  to  greenhouse  plants,  it  should  be  remembered  that  they 
require  no  heat  during  the  night  further  than  to  exclude  frosts.  It  has 
been  stated  and  urged  as  a  reason  for  keeping  a  higher  temperature 
that  it  is  necessary  to  do  so  in  order  to  secure  a  succession  of  bloom, 
but  it  had  been  amply  proved  that  by  allowing  a  more  liberal  heat,  say 
from  70°  to  80°  during  the  day,  that  a  more  profuse  crop  of  flowers 
will  be  gained  than  in  the  more  equable  conditions  insisted  upon. 

Another  injury  consequent  upon  a  high  night  temperature  during 
winter  arises  from  the  extraction  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  To 
maintain  an  inside  temperature  of  even  50°  when  the, external  is  near 
zero  involves  a  rapid  generation  of  heat,  and  as  the  capacity  of  air  for 
taking  moisture  increases  in  proportion  to  its  rise,  a  great  demand  is 
made  upon  the  plants  and  everything  in  the  house  capable  of  giving 
up  moisture.  The  quantity  of  water  thus  carried  off  may  be  seen  by 
the  deposition  of  ice  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass  after  a  night  of 
severe  frost.  Ice  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  is  often  found 
under  these  circumstances,  the  result  of  condensation  and  freezing  of 
the  water  carried  from  the  contained  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  and 
from  the  surfaces  of  the  plants.  The  parched  and  unhealthy  aspect 
of  the  plants  subjected  to  such  treatment  is  sufficient  evidence  against 
the  propriety  of  the  practice.  The  expense  of  fuel  and  labor  required 
to  maintain  this  injurious  temperature  is  also  an  important  consider- 
ation. 


85 


WATERING  PLANTS  IN  POTS. 

"How  often  should  I  water  my  plants'?"  This  question  is  very  fre- 
quently asked,  and  it  is  a  rather  perplexing  one  to  answer  definitely  5 
a  general  answer  would  be:  Never  apply  water  to  a  plant  until  it  re- 
quires it,  that  is  until  it  is  dry,  and  then  apply  a  sufficient  quantity  to 
saturate  the  soil,  which  will  be  indicated  by  the  surplus  passing  through 
the  drainage. 

Novices  in  plant  culture  usually  make  the  mistake  of  merely  sprink- 
ling the  surface  of  the  soil,  perhaps  daily,  without  any  time  applying 
enough  water  to  saturate  the  mass.  Plants  can  not  flourish  under 
such  conditions  ;  the  surface  will  appear  wet,  while  the  main  body  of 
the  soil  is  hard  and  dry.  One  drawback  to  properly  watering  plants 
in  parlor  and  window  gardening  (to  which  these  remarks  are  more  par- 
ticularly directed)  arises  from  the  inconvenience  attending  the  use  of 
water  in  sufficient  quantities;  another  evil  is  the  dryness  of  the  air. 
Both  of  these  obstacles  to  success  can  be  greatly  modified  by  the  use  of 
a  table  properly  fitted  for  the  reception  of  the  flower  pots  or  small 
vases  in  which  the  plants  are  kept.  This  table  may  be  of  any  required 
size ;  a  surface  of  2  by  3  feet  would  be  suitable  for  most  windows;  it 
should  be  made  tight  and  neatly  fitted.  A  ledge  is  made  by  fastening 
a  strip  3  inches  wide  around  the  edge  ;  then  fill  with  2  inches  of  clean, 
white  sand,  upon  which  the  plants  are  placed;  lining  the  table  with 
zinc  would  completely  guard  against  drip.  The  table  should  be  fitted 
with  rollers  to  facilitate  the  operation  of  watering  and  cleaning  the 
plants.  With  a  table  of  this  kind  the  plants  can  be  watered  freely, 
and  occasionally  sprinkled,  without  any  injury  to  surrounding  objects. 
The  sand  should  be  kept  constantly  wet,  so  that  moisture  will  be  evap- 
orated from  it,  and  thus  overcome,  in  some  degree,  one  of  the  chief 
obstacles  to  the  successful  culture  of  plants  in  dwelling  rooms — a  dry 
atmosphere. 

There  are  a  few  general  rules  with  regard  to  watering  plants  which 
may  be  noted.  Watering  should  be  preferably  applied  during  the 
early  part  of  the  day,  especially  so  in  the  winter  season.  Plants  in  pots 
well  supplied  with  roots  will  require  much  more  water  than  those  which 
are  newly  potted  or  have  a  quantity  of  soil  with  few  roots.  Plants  with 
narrow  or  small  foliage  will  not  use  so  much  water  as  those  with  large 
spreading  leaves.  Plants  in  the  shade  will  not  need  as  much  water  as 
will  those  in  the  sun ;  a  damp  atmosphere  will  also  reduce  the  necessity 
of  water  at  the  roots.  Plants  that  are  growing  freely  will  require  a  reg- 
ular supply,  as  they  are  sensible  of  a  check  at  this  period ;  on  the  other 
hand,  plants  which  are  comparatively  resting  will  need  but  little,  and 
the  supply  gradually  diminished  as  growth  is  being  completed. 

But  in  cases  when  water  is  applied  it  should  be  done  copiously,  and 
when  gradually  withheld  the  watering  should  be  less  frequent,  not  less 
in  quantity,  when  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  application. 


86 


WATER  PLANTS. 

In  improving  that  part  of  the  grounds  formerly  occupied  by  the 
canal  advantage  was  taken  of  the  position  to  construct  a  small  lake, 
mainly  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  a  collection  of  native  water 
plants. 

The  ornamental  as  well  as  the  picturesque  effects  of  this  class  of 
plants  are  mostly  quite  neglected  in  modern  landscape  gardening.  It 
is  not  uncommon  to  find  artificial  lakes  in  parks  and  pleasure  grounds 
wholly  destitute  of  this  class  of  vegetation,  and  although  water  surface 
is  seldom  uninteresting  in  scenery  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
possess  all  the  attractions  and  sanitary  effects  which  can  be  imparted 
by  the  introduction  of  suitable  flowering  plants. 

No  flower  in  the  garden  border  can  excel,  either  in  beauty  of  form  or 
indelicacy  of  fragrance,  the  white  water-lily,  Nymphcea  odor  at  a ;  the 
large  cup-shaped  yellowish  flowers,  boldly  projected  out  of  the  water 
on  long  foot  stalks,  of  the  Nelumbium  luteum ;  and  the  less  showy 
blossoms  of  the  yellow  pond-lily,  Nupliar  advena,  in  connection  with 
the  massive  spread  of  the  large  leaves,  especially  those  of  the  Nelum- 
bium, which  are  frequently  18  inches  in  diameter,  produce  an  effect 
equal  to  the  best  efforts  of  the  most  distinguished  artist  in  that  popu- 
lar formation  of  u foliage"  plants  known  as  "carpet  bedding." 

In  addition  to  the  water-lilies,  various  other  interesting  species  of 
water  plants  have  been  introduced  and  are  spreading  rapidly  in  the 
lake.  Several  of  the  curiously  horned  seeds  of  the  Trapa  natans  were 
thrown  in,  and  in  due  time  the  small  triangular-shaped  leaves  made 
their  appearance  on  the  surface,  neatly  arranged  in  roseate  form.  Sev- 
eral plants  of  a  tropical  Limnocharis  spread  rapidly  daring  the  summer, 
and  produced  abundantly  of  its  yellow  flowers.  The  duck-weed,  Lemna, 
thrown  in  a  sheltered  cove,  speedily  covered  the  surface  with  its  diminu- 
tive greenery.  In  deeper  water,  plants  of  the  eel-grass  ( Vallisneria 
spiralis]  were  planted,  and  in  shallow  recesses  various  species  were  in- 
troduced, as  Potamogetan,  Calla,  Pontederia,  Caltlia,  Acorus,  Polygonum, 
etc.  On  prominent  points,  tall,  reedy  plants  will  be  disposed,  such  as 
Typhas  and  Sparaganiums,  with  Cyperus,  Juncus,  and  smaller  growths 
as  marginal  plants  to  the  taller  central  groups. 

A  small  island  was  formed,  having  its  surface  raised  about  6  inches 
above  the  water  level  with  sphagnum,  in  which  various  low-growing 
bog  plants  were  inserted,  such  as  the  pitcher  plant  (Sarraceniapurpurea), 
the  horse-tail  grasses  (Equisetums],  with  Habenarias,  and  similar  low- 
growing  forms  that  are  to  be  found  in  woody  swamps  and  wet  meadows. 

The  effective  arrangement  of  water  and  bog  plants  in  and  on  the 
margins  of  lakes  should  be  as  much  a  subject  of  artistic  study  as  is  the 
arrangement  of  trees  and  shrubs  in  park  scenery.  This  branch  of  land- 
scape decoration  is  wholly  neglected,  but  it  is  destined  to  become  popu- 


87 

lar,  and  it  will  awaken  an  interest  in  an  extensive  class  of^-plants  that 
are  but  little  known  and  that  possess  a  characteristic  individuality  of 
form  and  beauty  which,  when  received  in  connection  with  their  natural 
surroundings,  can  not  fail  to  recall  pleasant  associations  to  the  mind 
compared  to  which  the  landscape  effect  produced  by  a  group  of  flower- 
ing shrubs  will  appear  exceedingly  tame  and  uninteresting. 

GLAZING  GREENHOUSE  EOOFS. 

The  ordinary  method  of  fastening  glass  in  window  sashes  is  to  lay  in 
the  glass  without  a  putty  bedding,  secure  it  with  small  triangular  bits 
of  tin,  then  complete  the  operation  by  filling  the  outside  of  the  sash-bar 
with  putty,  lapping  it  slightly  over  the  glass.  When  this  method  is 
applied  to  greenhouse  roofs  it  causes  a  great  amount  of  trouble  to  pre- 
vent leakage.  The  presence  of  moisture,  which  is  almost  always  to  be 
found  on  the  inside  of  the  roof  during  cold  weather,  and  the  action  of 
frosts  and  rains  on  the  outside,  have  a  tendency  to  loosen  and  destroy 
the  patty,  so  that  an  annual  overhauling  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  re- 
pair. But  there  are  now  very  few  greenhouses  glazed  in  the  above 
manner.  The  old  plan  has  given  place  to  a  more  permanent  and  more 
effectual  system  so  far  as  regards  a  tight  roof.  This  plan  consists  in 
placing  a  layer  of  the  best  putty  on  the  sash-bar,  then  pressing  the 
pane  of  glass  until  it  reaches  a  firm  uniform  bed,  and  so  working  up  a 
portion  of  the  putty  that  it  will  fill  all  spaces  between  the  edge  of  the 
glass  and  the  sash-bar.  After  the  surplus  putty  is  trimmed  oif  it  is 
allowed  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two,  which  will  cause  it  to  shrink  slightly 
from  the  wood;  then  a  coat  of  thickish  paint  is  applied,  which  effectually 
fills  up  all  crevices  and  makes  a  perfectly  water-tight  finish.  No  putty 
is  used  on  the  outside,  and  consequently  there  is  no  leakage  from  its 
decay ;  and  instead  of  tin  fastenings  the  glass  is  secured  by  brad-nails 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  four  to  each  pane,  fastened  at  the 
corners. 

The  popular  method  of  roofing  glass  structures  is  what  is  known  as 
a  fixed-bar  plan.  In  this  plan  no  framed  sashes  are  used  ;  the  rafters 
are  placed  about  8  feet  apart,  their  exact  distance  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  glass,  so  that,  for  a  neat  job,  the  glass  bar  will  come  in  the 
center  of  the  rafter.  Between  the  rafters  horizontal  purlines  are  in- 
serted to  support  the  sash-bars.  The  sash-bars  are  usually  made  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  depth  and  1J  in  width ;  these  are  fastened  in  paral- 
lel lines,  their  distance  apart  depending  upon  the  size  of  glass  em- 
ployed; after  testing  various-sized  panes,  the  size  10  inches  by  12  iuches 
is  generally  preferred.  For  this  size  the  sash -bars  are  placed  12 £  inches 
apart,  measuring  from  their  centers,  allowing  one-fourth  inch  rebate  for 
the  glass  to  rest  upon  on  each  side.  In  setting  the  panes  of  this  size  it  is  of 
some  importance  to  place  the  concave  surface  uppermost,  which  makes 


88 

the  center  of  the  pane  the  lowest  point,  so  that  the  water  which  falls  on 
the  roof  will  be  diverted  from  the  sides  to  the  center  of  the  line  of  glass. 
The  glass  should  not  lap  more  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  ;  wide  laps 
hold  dust,  which  in  turn  hold  water,  which  may  freeze  in  very  cold 
weather  and  split  the  glass.  This  method  of  glazing  admits  of  laying 
roofs  nearly  flat  without  trouble  from  leakage.  Ventilation  is  provided 
for  by  hinged  sashes  on  the  roof,  which  may  be  arranged  in  various  ways 
to  prevent  them  from  leaking  5  the  amount  of  ventilating  space  allowed 
will  have  some  dependence  upon  the  purposes  to  which  the  structure  will 
be  devoted. 

EASPBEEEY  CULTURE. 

Within  a  few  years  back  a  notable  change  has  been  introduced  in 
the  general  management  of  the  raspberry.  The  only  pruning  formerly 
given  to  this  plant  was  confined  to  cutting  out  the  old  stems  which  had 
fruited,  thinning  out  the  young  stems  which  were  to  produce  the  next 
crop,  and  shortening  them  by  cutting  off  a  portion  of  their  tops.  These 
would  then  be  fastened  to  a  stake  or  some  similar  support,  and  this 
completed  the  pruning  for  the  season.  But  the  more  modern  system 
obviates  the  necessity  of  any  kind  of  support  and  the  plants  are  man- 
aged so  that  they  are  able  to  support  themselves  when  full  of  fruit. 
This  is  accomplished  by  allowing  the  first  year's  growth  of  newly  set- 
out  plants  to  grow  undisturbed;  the  second  year  two  or  more  shoots 
will  be  produced,  and  when  these  have  reached  to  a  height  of  about  2 
feet  their  tops  are  pinched  off,  so  as  to  stop  their  further  upright  growth; 
they  will  then  proceed  to  push  out  side  shoots  or  laterals  on  all  sides, 
balancing  and  supporting  themselves  very  effectually  and  appearing 
like  small  evenly  headed  trees.  When  growth  has  been  completed  for 
the  season  and  the  leaves  have  fallen  these  side  shoots  are  pruned 
back  so  as  to  leave  them  from  12  to  16  inches  in  length,  according  to 
their  strength.  This  pruning  can  be  done  quite  rapidly  with  pruning 
shears.  At  the  same  time,  if  not  before,  all  the  old  stems  or  canes 
which  have  fruited  are  also  removed;  but  many  cultivators  prefer  to 
remove  these  old  stems  immediately  after  the  fruit  has  been  gathered, 
claiming  that  by  so  doing  the  young  canes  have  greater  freedom  of 
growth;  also,  that  by  promptly  removing  the  old  canes  many  kinds  of 
insects  which  lodge  in  the  old  wood  and  have  cocoons  and  nests  upon 
it  are  thus  destroyed  by  burning  all  the  pruuings  as  they  are  collected. 
This  system  is  continued  annually;  no  greater  number  of  young  shoots 
than  is  required  are  allowed  to  grow,  all  others  being  destroyed  as  they 
reach  a  few  inches  in  height.  The  summer  topping  is  attended  to  as 
previously  stated,  and  the  result  of  this  routine  treatment  is  a  self- 
supporting  plant  and  improved  fruit. 


89 

FIGS. 

The  culture  of  figs  has  never  attracted  much  attention  in  the  Middle 
and  Northern  States  owing  to  the  susceptibility  of  the  plants  to  cold. 
They  are  perfectly  adapted  to  the  climates  of  the  Southern  States, 
where  they  have  long  been  cultivated  for  domestic  purposes,  but  not 
produced  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  included  among  commercial 
products. 

The  fig  may  be  fruited  in  sheltered  localities  in  the  Northern  States 
by  taking  the  precaution  of  covering  the  branches  during  winter,  so  as 
to  protect  them  from  severe  freezing.  This  is  not  difficult  to  accomplish, 
the  most  simple  and  effectual  method  being  that  of  bending  down  the 
branches,  and  fastening  them  as  close  to  the  ground  as  practicable,  in 
which  condition  they  can  readily  be  covered  with  8  to  10  inches  of  soil, 
or  an  equally  thorough  coating  of  forest  leaves  protected  by  a  covering 
of  boards  to  exclude  rain. 

The  fig  bears  most  satisfactorily  when  it  is  planted  in  gravelly  or 
sandy  soils  ;  in  strong,  rich  soils  luxuriant  growths  are  produced,  and 
the  young  fruit  will  drop  prematurely;  the  wood  will  also  ripen  imper- 
fectly, and  thus  diminish  the  number  of  perfect  fruit  buds.  After  the 
fruit  makes  its  appearance,  and  all  during  its  progress  toward  ripening, 
the  plants  require  an  abundance  of  water ;  if  the  roots  are  kept  dry  at  any 
time  during  this  period  the  fruit  will  probably  drop  ;  but  when  the  fruit 
becomes  soft,  indicating  ripeness,  a  less  supply  of  water  will  improve 
its  flavor,  and  further  tend  to  harden  and  ripen  the  annual  growths  of 
the  tree. 

VANILLA. 

The  opinion  prevails  that  the  vanilla  plant  can  be  successfully  culti- 
vated in  Florida,  and  applications  for  plants  and  inquiries  as  to  their 
growth  and  culture  are  frequently  received. 

The  vanilla  belongs  to  the  family  of  orchids  and  grows  wild  in  Mex- 
ico, Peru,  Brazil,  and  other  parts  of  South  America.  It  is  also  found 
in  Trinidad,  Jamaica,  and  other  West  India  islands,  and  it  is  exceed- 
ingly doubtful  if  the  climate  of  any  portion  of  Florida  would  prove 
suitable  for  its  profitable  cultivation. 

The  vanilla  is  a  climbing  plant  and  is  propagated  by  cuttings  inserted 
near  the  stems  of  trees,  upon  which  it  climbs,  adhering  to  the  bark  by 
its  fleshy  roots. 

The  best  marketable  pods  are  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  species 
Vanilla  planifolia,  and  the  principal  supply  comes  from  Vera  Cruz. 

Assertions  have  been  made  that  the  vanilla  plant  grows  wild  in  Flor- 
ida. In  answer  to  requests  for  specimens,  leaves  of  Liatris  odoratis- 
sima  have. been  received.  This  plant  has  aromatic  foliage  and  is  some- 
times used  for  flavoring  cigars  and  tobacco,  and  is  locally  known  as 
wild  vanilla,  but  it  has  no  relation  whatever  to  the  vanilla  plant  that 
produces  the  fragrant  pods  of  that  name. 


90 


INDIA-KTJBBER  PLANTS. 

In  the  praiseworthy  endeavors  to  introduce  new  industries  into  the 
Southern  States,  requests  are  made  for  economic  plants  of  many  kinds 
that  are  strictly  tropical  productions,  and  among  these  may  be  placed 
the  India-rubber-bearing  trees. 

Various  plants  afford  caoutchouc,  the  elastic  gummy  substance  bet- 
ter known  as  India  rubber,  but  as  far  as  it  is  known  it  is  solely  pro- 
duced by  plants  of  tropical  climates.  In  the  East  Indies  it  is  collected 
from  Urceola  elastica  ;  from  several  species  of  Ficus,  mainly  from  Ficus 
elastica,  and  from  a  few  other  species,  natives  of  the  East  Indies  and 
western  tropical  Africa. 

South  American  rubber  is  also  extracted  from  plants  of  different 
genera.  The  best  is  said  to  be  obtained  from  Hevea  brabiliensis,  a  native 
of  the  Para  forests,  considered  to  be  distinct  from  the  Sophonia  elastica, 
which  furnishes  the  largest  portion  of  the  rubber  entering  into  the 
commerce  of  that  country.  The  sand-box  tree,  Hura  crepitans,  yields 
a  milky  juice  which  is  similarly  converted  into  caoutchouc  by  evapora- 
tion. These  plants  belong  to  the  natural  order  Euplwrbiacece,  a  large 
family  of  plants,  mostly  yielding  a  milky  juice,  containing  acrid  and 
poisonous  properties. 

Mexican  rubber  is  extracted  from  a  native  tree,  the  Castilloa  elastica, 
which  grows  abundantly  near  the  Gulf  coast.  This  plant  is  botanically 
allied  to  the  rubber  producing  Ficus  of  the  East  Indies. 

A  new  elastic  gum  has  recently  been  produced  in  Mexico,  which  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  a  native  herbaceous  plant  allied  to  the  family 
of  asters.  This  plant  would  probably  succeed  in  the  Southern  States. 

These  are  strictly  tropical  trees,  for  which  we  have  no  suitable  cli- 
mate ;  but  attention  might  profitably  be  directed  to  the  gum-producing 
Mesquite  tree  of  Texas,  Algarobia  glandulosa,  which  yields  a  nonelastic 
gum  of  the  nature  and  possessing  all  the  essential  qualities  of  gum. 
arabic. 

CITEOK. 

CITRUS  MEDICA. 

The  thick  rind  of  the  citron  is  valued  for  the  purpose  of  candying 
or  preserving  in  sugar  for  use  in  confectionery,  etc.  Growers  of  citrous 
fruits  in  California  and  Florida  have  repeatedly  requested  information 
as  to  the  method  of  preparation  and  manufacture  of  this  condiment.  As 
contributing  to  this  information,  the  following  extract  from  an  authen- 
tic source  is  offered : 

In  all  the  countries  I  have  mentioned  above  as  contributing  the  raw  fruit  for  this 
industry,  it  is  treated  in  the  same  manner  for  the  over-sea  passage.  The  fruit  is  simply 
halved  and  placed  in  hogsheads  or  large  casks  filled  with  a  fairly  strong  solution  of 
brine,  the  fruit  being  halved  merely  to  insure  thorough  preservation  of  the  rind  by 
an  equal  saturation  of  the  interior  as  well  as  the  exterior  surface.  In  these  casks  it 
arrives  at  the  doors  of  the  manufactory. 


91 

The  first  process  to  which  it  is  then  subjected  is  the  separation  of  the  fruit  from 
the  rind.  This  is  done  by  women,  who,  seated  around  a  large  vessel,  take  out  the 
fruit,  skillfully  gouge  out  the  inside  with  a  few  rapid  motions  of  the  forefinger  and 
thumb,  and  throwing  this  aside  place  the  rind  unbroken  in  a  vessel  alongside  them. 

The  rind  is  next  carried  to  large  casks  filled  with  fresh  cold  water,  in  which  it  is 
immersed  for  between  2  and  3  days  to  rid  it  of  the  salt  it  has  absorbed.  When  taken 
out  of  these  casks  the  rinds  are  boiled  with  the  double  object  of  making  them  tender 
and  of  completely  driving  out  any  trace  of  salt  that  may  be  still  left  in  them.  For 
this  purpose  they  are  boiled  in  a  large  copper  cauldron  for  a  time  varying  from  1  to 
2  hours,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  fruit  and  the  number  of  days  it  has  been  im- 
mersed in  the  brine.  When  removed  from  this  cauldron  the  peel  should  be  quite  free 
from  any  flavor  of  salt,  and  at  the  same  time  be  sufficiently  soft  to  absorb  the  sugar 
readily  from  the  sirup,  in  which  it  is  now  ready  to  be  immersed. 

The  next  process  to  which  the  rind  is  subjected  is  that  of  a  slow  low  absorption  of 
sugar,  and  this  occupies  no  less  than  8  days.  Needless  to  say  that  the  absorption  of 
sugar  by  fresh  fruit  in  order  to  be  thorough  must  be  slow,  and  not  only  stow,  but  it 
must  be  gradual — that  is  to  say,  the  fruit  should  at  first  be  treated  with  a  weak  solution 
of  sugar,  which  may  then  be  gradually  strengthened,  for  the  power  of  absorption  is 
one  that  grows  by  feeding.  The  fruit  (and  this  holds  good  more  especially  with  the 
rind)  would  absorb  with  difficulty  and  more  slowly  if  plunged  at  once  into  thick 
sirup  than  if  gradually  treated  with  weak  solution  easier  of  absorption,  and  by 
which  it  has  been  thoroughly  permeated  first.  It  is  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  that 
governs  the  process  I  now  describe. 

The  fruit  has  now  passed  into  what  I  may  call  the  saturating  room,  whereon  every 
side  are  to  be  seen  long  rows  of  immense  earthen  ware  vessels  about  4  feet  high  and  2-J 
feet  in  diameter,  in  outline  roughly  resembling  the  famed  Etruscan  jar,  but  with  a 
girth  altogether  out  of  proportion  to  their  height,  and  with  very  short  necks  and  large, 
open  mouths.  All  the  vessels  are  filled  to  their  brims  with  citron  and  orange  peel  in 
every  stage  of  absorption,  i.  e.,  steeped  in  sugar  of  (roughly  speaking)  eight  different 
degrees  of  strength.  I  said  before  that  this  is  a  process  that  occupies  almost  always 
8  days,  and  as  the  sirup  in  each  jar  is  changed  every  day,  we  may  divide  the  mass  of 
vessels  before  us  into  groups  of  eight.  Take  one  group  of  this  number,  and  we  are 
able  to  follow  the  fruit  completely  through  this  stage  of  its  treatment.  With  vessels 
of  such  great  size  and  weight,  holding  at  least  half  a  ton  of  fruit  and  sirup,  it  is 
clearly  easier  to  deal  with  the  sirup  than  with  the  fruit.  To  take  the  fruit  out  of  one 
solution  and  to  place  it  into  the  next  stronger,  and  so  on,  throughout  the  series, 
would  be  a  toilsome  process,  and  one,  moreover,  injurious  to  the  fruit.  In  each  of 
these  jars,  therefore,  is  fixed  a  wooden  well,  into  which  a  simple  suction-pump  being 
introduced  the  sirup  is  pumped  from  each  jar  daily  into  the  adjoining  one. 

"  How  is  the  relative  strength  of  the  sirup  in  each  jar  regulated?"  is  the  next  ques- 
tion. "The  fruit  itself  does  that,"  is  the  foreman's  reply;  and  this  becomes  clear 
from  the  following  explanations  :  Number  your  group  of  jars  from  1  to  8  respectively, 
and  assume  No.  1  to  be  that  which  has  just  been  filled  with  peel  brought  straight 
from  the  boiler,  in  which  it  has  been  deprived  of  the  last  trace  of  salt,  and  No.  8  to 
contain  that  which,  having  passed  through  every  stage  of  absorption  but  the  last,  is 
now  steeped  in  the  freshly  prepared  and  therefore  strongest  solution  of  sirup  used 
in  this  stage.  "We  prepare  daily  a  sirup  of  the  strength  of  30  degrees,  measured  by 
the  'provino,'  a  graduated  test  for  measuring  the  density  of  the  sirup,"  continued  the 
foreman,  "and  that  is  poured  upon  the  fruit  in  jar  No.  8.  To-morrow  the  sirup  frt  m 
this  jar,  weakened  by  the  absorption  from  it  by  the  fruit  of  a  certain  proportion  of 
sugar,  will  be  pumped  into  jar  No.  7,  and  so  on  daily  through  the  series.  Thus,  No. 
1,  containing  the  fruit  itself,  regulates  the  strength  of  the  sirup,  as  I  said."  "But 
if  the  sirup  has  lost  all  its  strength  before  the  seventh  day,  or  arrival  at  jar  No.  1?" 
we  ask.  "Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  that,  by  constant  testing  with  the  *  pro- 
vino,'  "  is  the  reply ;  "  and  if  that  is  found  to  be  the  case,  a  little  stronger  sirup  must 
be  added  to  the  jar." 


92 

A  slight  fermentation  takes  place  in  moat  of  the  jars,  but  this,  so  far  from  being 
harmful,  iw  regarded  as  necessary,  but  of  course  it  must  not  be  allowed  to  go  too  far. 

There  is  yet  another  '  stage,  and  that  perhaps  the  most  important,  through  which 
the  peel  has  to  pass  before  it  can  be  pronounced  sufficiently  saturated  with  sugar. 
It  is  now  boiled  in  a  still  stronger  sirup,  of  a  density  of  40  degrees  by  the  testing 
tube,  and  this  is  done  in  large  copper  vessels  over  a  slow  coke  fire,  care  being  taken 
to  prevent  the  peel  adhering  to  the  side  of  the  vessel  by  gentle  stirring  with  a  long 
paddle-shaped  ladle.  The  second  boiling  will  occupy  about  an  hour. 

Taken  off  the  fire,  the  vessels  are  carried  to  a  large  wooden  trough,  over  which  is 
spread  a  coarse,  open  wire  netting.  The  contents  are  poured  over  this,  and  the 
peel  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  netting,  so  that  the  sirup— now  thickened 
to  the  consistency  of  treacle— may  drain  off  the  surface  of  the  peel  into  the  trough 
below.  The  peel  has  now  taken  up  as  much  sugar  as  is  necessary. 

Now  comes  the  final  process,  the  true  candying  of  the  covering  of  the  surface  of 
the  peel  with  the  layer  of  sugar- crystals  which  is  seen  upon  all  candied  fruits.  To 
effect  this  a  quantity  of  crystallized  sugar — at  Leghorn  the  same  quality  of  sugar  is 
used  as  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  sirup — is  just  dissolved  in  a  little 
water,  and  in  this  the  now  dried  peel,  taken  off  the  wire  netting,  is  immersed.  The 
same  copper  vessels  are  used,  and  the  mixture  is  again  boiled  over  a  slow  fire.  A 
short  boiling  will  suffice  for  this,  the  last  process,  for  the  little  water  will  be  quickly 
driven  off,  and  the  sugar  upon  cooling  will  form  its  natural  crystals  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  fruit.  Poured  off  from  these  vessels,  it  is  again  dried  upon  the  surface 
of  the  wire  netting,  as  before  described.  The  candying  is  now  complete,  and  the 
candied  peel  is  ready  for  the  packing  room,  to  which  it  is  carried  off  in  shallow  bas- 
kets. 

In  the  packing  room  may  be  seen  hundreds  of  boxes  of  oval  shapes,  or,  if  I  may  so 
speak,  of  rectangular  shape,  with  rounded  corners  and  of  different  sizes,  for  each 
country  prefers  its  boxes  to  be  of  a  particular  weight,  Hamburg  taking  the  largest 
of  15  and  30  kilogrammes ;  the  United  States  of  America  preferring  smaller,  of  10  and 
12  kilogrammes ;  whilst  England  takes  the  smallest,  of  5  kilogrammes,  and  one  con- 
taining about  7  English  pounds.  The  wood  of  which  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  these 
boxes  are  made  comes  to  us  in  thin  planks  from  Trieste,  and  a  skillful  packing  is 
generally  done  by  women,  and  the  boxes  are  lined  with  white  paper.  They  are 
then  packed  in  cases  of  100  kilogrammes,  ten  of  the  smaller  American  boxes  filling  a 
case.  The  candied  peel  is  now  ready  for  export. 


SPECIAL  INQUIRIES  AND  ANSWERS. 

That  portion  of  the  official  correspondence  of  the  Department  which 
relates  to  subject-matter  connected  with  the  operations  and  specialties 
of  the  horticultural  division,  and  is  referred  to  the  horticulturist  for 
consideration  and  reply,  embraces  a  variety  of  subjects  upon  which  ad- 
vice is  repeatedly  asked  by  different  individuals;  and  as  the  replies 
made,  so  far  as  the  Department  is  concerned,  reach  only  to  the  indi- 
vidual addressed,  and  as  this  correspondence  is  largely  of  general  ap- 
plication and  directly  practical  in  its  nature,  I  have  selected  the  follow- 
ing from  the  many  similar  communications  with  a  view  to  lessen  repe- 
titions of  these  particular  inquiries: 

VANILLA. 

S.  M.  R.,  Polk  County,  Florida.  I  understand  that  the  Vanilla  Bean  grows  well  in 
all  parts  of  Mexico  and  in  cool  places.  I  am  sure  it  would  do  well  in  this  county, 


93 

and  would  be  obliged  to  you  for  some  plants  for  trial.  Also  would  be  glad  to  know 
something  about  its  cultivation  and  preparing  the  crop  for  market. 

Answer. — The  vanilla  beau  (  Vanilla  planif olio)  is  a  native  of  tropical  countries.  It 
is  produced  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Mexico,  and  not  by  any  means  in  cool  places:  in 
fact  its  area  of  profitable  culture  is  said  to  be  limited  to  certain  favorable  localities 
near  the  Gulf  coast.  It  is  very  doubtful,  indeed,  whether  the  plant  can  be  grown 
profitably  in  any  part  of  Florida. 

The  vanilla  is  a  climbing  orchid,  or  air  plant,  having  a  fleshy  stem  and  succulent 
leaves.  It  is  progagated  by  cuttings  of  the  stem  planted  close  to  the  tree  upon  which 
the  plants  climb.  They  usually  receive  but  little  cultivation  further  than  to  keep 
down  growths  which  might  interfere  with  the  gathering  of  the  fruit,  the  plants  re- 
ceiving their  nourishment  mostly  from  the  atmosphere. 

The  peculiar  odor  of  the  bean  is  developed  during  the  process  of  curing,  and  much 
of  the  commercial  value  of  the  article  depends  upon  its  preparation  for  the  market. 

The  fruit  is  gathered  before  it  is  quite  ripe.  If  allowed  to  remain  on  the  plant  the 
pod  splits  and  becomes  black ;  when  drying  it  exudes  a  dark-colored  unctuous  liquid, 
and  when  quite  dry  becomes  brittle  and  devoid  of  perfume. 

In  Guiana  the  pods  are  cured  by  placing  them  in  ashes  until  they  begin  to  shrivel, 
when  they  are  wiped,  rubbed  over  with  olive  oil,  then  huugin  the  open  air  to  dry. 

In  Peru  the  pods  are  dipped  in  boiling  water,  then  hung  out  in  the  open  air  for  a 
month,  afterwards  smeared  with  castor  oil  and  tied  in  bundles  for  sale. 

In  Mexico  the  curing  process  is  more  elaborate  and  varied.  The  pods  are  placed  in 
a  heap  under  protection  from  the  weather  until  they  begin  to  shrivel,  when  they  are 
submitted  to  a  sweating  process.  This  is  accomplished  by  wrapping  the  pods  in 
blankets  inclosed  in  tight  boxes;  afterwards  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun.  They  are 
now  tied  into  small  bales  or  bundles,  which  are  first  wrapped  in  woolen  blankets, 
then  in  a  coating  of  banana  leaves,  first  sprinkled  with  water,  then  placed  in  an  ovon 
heated  up  to  above  140°  F.  Here  they  remain  for  from  24  to  48  hours,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  pods,  the  largest  requiring  the  longer  time.  After  this  heating  they 
are  exposed  to  the  sun  daily  for  50  or  60  days  until  they  are  thoroughly  dried  and 
ready  for  the  market. 

In  the  valley  of  Mazation  the  vanilla  abounds  in  a  wild  state  and  the  article  is  of  the 
finest  grade.  The  curing  is  thus  described:  "To  cure  properly  requires  about  90 
days,  and  the  manipulation  is  almost  infinite,  each  beau  being  handled  critically  from 
three  hundred  to  five  hundred  times  in  the  procets  by  the  Indians.  The  beans,  as 
gathered,  are  disposed  of  in  layers,  first  a  layer  of  beans  and  then  a  blanket,  and  so 
on  till  a  pile  is  formed.  This  is  called  the  sweating  process,  and  during  its  contin- 
uance the  piles  are  turned  two  or  three  times  a  day  until  most  of  the  water  is  sweated 
out.  This  process  is  followed  by  drying  in  the  sun,  and  here  the  natives  exercise  the 
utmost  care  and  attention.  When  finished  the  beans  are  to  be  the  color  of  a  very 
dark  cigar.  The  attendant  picks  up  each  bean  occasionally  for  examination,  and  if 
he  observes  any  part  of  the  pod  is  coloring  more  rapidly  than  another  lie  twists  a  bit 
of  the  leaf  around  the  spot  until  the  action  of  the  sun  shall  have  affected  all  alike." 

MAHOGANY  TREE. 

J.  S.,  Eastern  Shore,  Maryland.  I  inclose  a  few  seeds  of  the  mahogany  tree  which 
grows  in  this  part  of  the  State.  Since  I  learned  that  this  tree  was  the  mahogany  I 
am  saving  the  seeds  and  mean  to  plant  all  I  can  get,  and  would  ask  you  where  I  can 
get  a  supply,  as  I  suppose  that  the  tree  is  in  other  parts  of  this  country. 

Answer. — The  seeds  sent  are  those  of  the  Kentucky  coffee  tree  (Gymnocladus  cana- 
densis),  and  has  no  botanical  relation  to  the  tree  which  yields  the  mahogany  wood 
of  commerce. 

It  is  called  coffee  tree  for  the  given  reason  that  the  early  settlers  in  Kentucky, 
where  the  tree  grows  in  the  forests,  used  the  beaii  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

The  timber  of  this  tree  is  of  a  fine  compact  grain  and  is  sometimes  used  in  cabinet 
work,  hence  it  is  in  some  places  called  the  mahogany  tree. 


94 


COCHINEAL. 

J.  H.,  Guadalupe  County,  Texas.  I  take  tlie  liberty  of  writing  to  you,  as  I  wish 
to  know  if  you  could  give  me  any  information  about  cochineal.  We  have  plenty  of 
prickly  pear  (cactus),  and  believe  it  is  the  same  kind  used  in  Madeira  for  the  growth 
of  the  insect.  I  should  be  very  thankful  if  you  would  let  me  know  something  about 
the  matter. 

Answer. — The  cochineal  insect  (Coccus  cacti}  feeds  upon  different  kinds  of  Opuntia, 
or  prickly  pears.  Opuntia  tuna  and  Opuntia  or  Nopalea  coccinellifera  are  the  species 
principally  used  in  Mexico,  and  these,  with  Opuntia  ficus  indica,  are  employed  for  a 
like  purpose  in  the  Canary  Islands,  New  Grenada,  and  Madeira. 

In  arranging  plantations,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  termed  jiopaleries,  for  raising 
the  cochineal  insect,  the  plants  are  set  out  in  formal  lines  several  feet  apart,  so  that 
they  can  be  cultivated  similarly  to  a  carefully  checkered  cornfield,  and  when  the 
plants  are  large  enough  the  insects  are  distributed  upon  the  plants.  These  soon  give 
origin  to  countless  numbers  of  minute  insects,  of  which  the  females  soon  increase 
rapidly  in  size  until  they  almost  lose  the  appearance  of  insects  and  look  like  small 
warts.  At  this  stage  of  their  growth  they  are  gathered  by  detaching  them  from  the 
plant  by  a  flat,  wedge-like  stick,  and  placed  in  a  bag,  which  is  then  dipped  in  boiling 
water  to  kill  the  insects,  afterwards  drying  them  in  the  sun. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  70,000  of  these  insects  are  required  to  make  a  pound  of 
cochineal. 

It  may  be  surmised  that  the  profits  of  this  industry  will  greatly  depend  upon  the 
cost  of  the  labor  required  for  these  manipulations. 

TREATMENT   OF   LAND. 

J.  G.  T.,  Delaware.  Two  years  ago  I  took  in  hand  a  piece  of  ground  completely 
exhausted  through  continued  cropping  without  manure,  and  so  full  of  wire-worms 
that  not  even  weeds  can  be  got  to  grow.  The  ground  is  a  very  heavy  loam,  lying 
upon  a  stiff  clay ;  every  shower  of  rain  makes  it  a  puddle,  and  forty-eight  hours  of 
sunshine  makes  it  so  hard  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  break  it  up;  manure 
plowed  in  can  be  turned  up  months  afterwards  in  the  condition  in  which  it  was  put 
on.  I  have  used  lime  at  the  rate  of  25  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  not  with  the  result 
expected,  and  intend  to  apply  the  same  quantity  of  common  salt,  in  the  hope  that  it 
will  destroy  the  worms. 

Will  you  kindly  say  if  I  have  adopted  the  proper  method  ?  Any  advice  you  may 
tender  will  be  very  kindly  received  and  carefully  followed. 

Answer. — There  can  be  no  permanent  or  satisfactory  improvement  made  upon  such 
land  as  described  until  it  is  thoroughly  tile-trained.  Thorough  draining  would  in- 
volve parallel  lines  of  tiles  not  more  than  25  feet  apart,  and  placed  to  a  depth  aver- 
aging 30  inches.  Then  it  should  be  deeply  plowed  in  the  fall ;  fall  plowing  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  management  of  heavy  land,  and  no  mechanical  appliances 
can  pulverize  it  so  effectually  as  the  influence  of  frost. 

After  plowing  in  the  fall,  sow  salt  at  the  rate  of  15  to  20  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
when  it  is  dry  enough  to  work  in  spring,  spread  lime  over  the  surface  at  the  rate  of 
from  50  to  75  bushels  per  acre  and  harrow  it  in  before  putting  in  a  crop. 

It  should  be  well  understood  that  land  of  this  character  should  never  be  worked 
when  wet.  After  heavy  summer  rains  there  is  always  a  period  between  wetting  and 
drying  when  it  can  be  pulverized  on  the  surface  and  thus  effectually  prevent  its 
becoming  hard  and  compact. 

Draining  will  greatly  modify  the  tendency  to  cake  or  become  hard  on  the  surface. 
It  will  also  allow  of  a  gradual  deepening  of  the  plowed  stratum,  and  is,  in  fact,  the 
foundation  of  all  improvement  towards  increasing  the  productiveness  of  lauds  rest- 
ing upon  a  clay  subsoil. 


95 

APPLE   TREES. 

J.  K.  E.,  Fairfield  County,  South  Carolina.  Also,  I  want  what  information  you 
can  give  me  about  apple  trees  for  this  climate.  I  am  told  that  the  Northern-grown 
trees,  or  trees  from  Northern  nurseries,  are  not  desirable,  as  the  fruit  will  not  keep 
for  any  length  of  time  during  the  winter,  or  after  it  is  taken  from  the  tree.  I  am 
comparatively  a  new-comer  here,  but  would  like  to  set  out  some  apple  as  well  as 
other  fruit  trees,  and  would  act  advisedly  in  the  matter. 

Answer. — So  far  as  it  concerns  the  trees,  provided  they  have  been  well  grown, 
healthy,  and  wood  properly  matured,  it  probably  makes  but  little  difference  whether 
they  are  from  Northern  or  from  Southern  nurseries  :  but  when  it  comes  to  the  selec- 
tion of  varieties,  especially  winter-keeping  kinds,  it  is  essential  to  recognize  that 
most  of  the  Northern  winter  varieties  become  summer  and  fall  ripening  kinds  when 
grown  in  South  Carolina. 

It  therefore  becomes  n'ecessary  to  procure  the  best  kinds  from  Southern  nurseries, 
where  attention  has  been  given  to  the  propagation  of  fruit  specially  adapted  to  their 
sections,  of  which  there  are  numerous  varieties  which  for  size,  beauty,  and  quality 
are  equal  to  any  produced  in  more  northern  regions. 

COFFEE. 

W.  W.,  Erie  County,  New  York.  I  am  desirous  of  gaining  information  in  regard 
to  the  cultivation  and  raising  of  coffee. 

I  should  like  to  get  cuttings  or  slips  of  the  coffee  tree  for  grafting  purposes.  I  have 
a  ranch  in  California  upon  which  there  is  wild  coffee  growing  which  produces  a  berry 
similar  to  Mocha,  only  smaller.  If  I  could  get  cuttings  or  buds  to  graft  I  should  like 
to  make  an  effort  to  see  what  could  be  done  in  the  matter. 

Answer. — The  so-called  wild  coffee  of  California  is  the  seed  of  a  plant  belonging  to 
the  buckthorn  family,  called  Ehamnus  calif ornicus,  and  has  no  more  relation  to  Arabian 
coffee  than  it  hai  to  a  hazel  bush  or  a  maple  tree. 

Of  course  it  would  be  wholly  impracticable  to  graft  or  bud  the  coffee  into  a  Rha- 
mus  and  expect  the  scion  to  grow. 

The  coffee  plant,  so  far  as  experiments  have  been  noted,  has  not  been  a  success  in 
California. 

The  tropical  summer  period  is  too  short  and  the  winter  temperature  too  low  over 
by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  State.  The  coffee  plant  suffers  or  is  checked  in 
growth  when  its  surrounding  temperature  is  so  low  as  40°  F. 

LOTUS  PLANT. 

H.  S.,  New  York  City.  Can  I  get  from  you  a  description  and  sketch  of  the  lotus 
plant  of  Egypt  ? 

Answer.—  The  Egyptian  lotus  is  given  by  some  authorities  as  being  the  fruit  of  a 
water  plant,  Nymphcealotus.  The  fruit  of  Nelumbium  speciosum,  also  a  water  plant,  is 
also  known  as  lotus. 

The  fruit  of  Zizyphus  lotus,  a  prickly  branching  tree  allied  to  the  jujube  tree,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  true  lotus  of  the  Lotophagi.  This  fruit  is  described  as  small  fari- 
naceous berries,  of  a  yellow  color  and  delicious  taste.  This  farinaceous  substance, 
when  dried,  is  pounded  into  a  kind  of  flour,  which,  being  formed  into  cakes  with 
water  and  dried  in  the  sun,  makes  a  kind  of  sweetish  bread. 

LE   CONTE   PEAR. 

B.  B.,  Lake  County,  Florida.  I  have  about  a  dozen  Le  Conte  pear  trees  which  have 
made  fine  growth,  and  are  bushy  trees  some  12  to  15  feet  in  height,  but  they  do  not 
bear  any  fruit.  For  several  years  past  a  fe\v  sickly  looking  flowers  would  appear, 
but  no  fruit. 


96 

I  write  to  ask  you  if  you  think  that  they  need  to  be  fertilized.  The  soil  grows 
orange  trees  well;  of  course  they  receive  some  fertilizer,  but  the  pear  trees  were 
treated  the  same. 

If  you  could  advise  me  what  to  do  I  would  be  much  obliged. 

Answer. — The  main  reason  why  the  Le  Conte  pear  fails  to  fruit  with  you  is  that  the 
climate  is  too  continuously  warm  and  the  trees  have  no  decided  or  definite  period  of 
rest.  This  continued  activity  of  growth  prevents  the  formation  of  flower  buds  and 
encourages  growth  of  shoots.  If  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  arrested  or  checked  in  the 
early  fall  it  would  tend  towards  the  formation  of  flower  buds,  and  possibly  secure  a 
crop  of  fruit.  This  may  be  effected  by  pruning  the  roots.  Practically  this  operation 
would  consist  in  digging  out  a  circular  trench  about  4  feet  from  the  stem  of  the  tree, 
cutting  out  all  the  roots  encountered  to  a  depth  of  30  inches,  then  undermine  the  ball 
so  as  to  sever  all  deep-running  tap  roots.  Then  throw  the  earth  back  into  the  ditch, 
firming  it  properly  as  the  filling  proceeds. 

If  this  operation  is  performed  about  the  end  of  August  it  would  check  longitudinal 
growth  of  shoots  and  tend  towards  the  formation  of  fruit  spurs  on  the  older  branches. 

This  is  not  a  new  or  untried  process,  but  has  long  been  practiced  successfully  in 
rendering  barren  trees  fruitful  under  conditions  similar  to  those  here  mentioned. 

LAWN-MAKING. 

J.  S.,  Baltimore  County,  Maryland.  Now  I  want  to  tell  you  about  my  lawn,  or 
rather  I  should  say  my  failure  in  trying  to  get  one.  Two  years  ago  I  had  the  ground 
plowed  deep ;  at  least  my  instructions  were  to  plow  it  deep  and  good,  but  I  now 
think  that  it  was  not  very  deeply  plowed.  It  was  then  made  smooth  and  level;  was 
fertilized  with  300  pounds  of  superphosphate  (it  is  about  half  an  acre),  and  lawn- 
grass  seed  sown  and  harrowed  over.  With  the  bushel  of  grass  seed  was  mixed  about 
2  pecks  of  oats.  It  was  sown  about  the  end  of  March,  and  came  up  beautiful  and 
green  in  a  few  weeks,  at  least  the  oats  did.  When  the  oats  were  about  to  head  I  was 
advised  to  mow  them  so  as  to  let  the  grass  grow.  This  was  done  ;  weeds  came  up, 
but  very  little  grass  was  seen,  and,  in  short,  although  the  weeds  were  mown  down 
several  times  during  the  summer,  the  grass  made  no  show,  and  when  the  most  of  the 
weeds  were  killed  by  the  frost  my  poor  lawn  looked  very  sickly  indeed,  with  here 
and  there  a  tuft  of  grass  and  clover  ;  but  the  greater  portion  looked  as  bare  as  the 
day  the  seeds  were  sown. 

I  was  advised  to  cover  it  all  over  with  a  coating  of  manure  just  before  setting  in 
of  winter,  which  was  done.  When  the  spring  came  round  the  coarse  portions  of 
manure  were  removed  and  the  finer  portions  harrowed  into  the  soil.  It  was  again 
seeded  as  before,  and  the  oats  did  well,  but  not  the  grass,  and  I  have  yet  no  lawn. 

Please  tell  me  why  I  have  failed  and  how  I  can  get  a  good  lawn. 

Answer. — The  letter  indicates  very  clearly  the  cause  of  failure.  First,  the  soil  was 
probably  imperfectly  prepared ;  second,  the  allowance  of  grass  seed  was  too  small ; 
and,  third,  the  oat  seed  allowance  was  so  large  that,  even  if  the  other  two  factors 
had  been  of  the  best,  the  oat  crop  would  have  rendered  it  a  failure. 

To  secure  a  good  lawn  the  primary  requisite  is  proper  preparation  of  the  soil. 
Where  this  can  be  done  by  the  plow  a  deep  furrow  should  be  thrown  out  with  the 
turning  plow,  and  a  subsoil  plow  run  into  the  bottom  of  each  furrow.  This  will  turn 
and  loosen  to  a  depth  of  from  15  to  18  inches,  according  to  the  thoroughness  of  the 
work.  If  done  by  hand  labor  it  should  be  spaded  as  deep  as  the  spade  can  penetrate 
and  the  subsoil  loosened  with  a  pick,  but  in  no  case  should  the  subsoil  be  brought  to 
the  surface  if  the  sowing  is  to  be  immediate. 

The  next  operation  is  to  level  the  surface  so  that  it  may  be  made  smooth  and  regu- 
lar. No  pains  or  expense  should  be  grudged  to  make  the  surface  perfect  at  this  stage 
of  the  work,  as  it  will  be  difficult  to  make  corrections  after  sowing. 

If  good  barnyard  manure  can  be  provided  a  heavy  dressing  of  it  should  be  spread 


97 

over  the  surface  and  plowed  in.  This  soil  preparation  is  best  when  done  in  the  fall 
and  the  surface  left  rough  during  the  winter. 

Even  with  the  above  manuring  the  second  plowing  should  not  be  omitted.  As  a 
substitute  for  the  fall  manuring  apply  bone  dust  at  the  rate  of  at  least  one-half  ton 
per  acre  in  the  spring  on  the  surface  and  harrow  it  in.  Before  sowing  the  surface 
should  be  harrowed  and  cross-harrowed  until  a  smooth,  even  surface  is  produced ; 
then  sow  the  seed  and  cover  it  by  rolling. 

The  best  lawn  grass  is  Poa  pratensis,  variously  known  as  blue  grass,  green  grass, 
and  June  grass,  and  the  many  mixtures  sold  as  lawn  grasses  are  largely  composed  of 
this  species.  A  good  mixture  is  2  bushels  of  the  above,  1  bushel  of  red  top  (Agrostia 
vulgar  is),  and  1  quart  of  timothy  (Phlem  pratense).  The  timothy  seed  is  included 
because  it  vegetates  quickly  and  strongly,  loosens  the  surface  soil,  and  thus  facilitates 
the  growth  of  the  other  grasses,  and  soon  disappears.  If  sown  under  good  conditions 
from  the  first  of  March  to 'the  middle  of  April,  it  will  be  fit  for  the  lawn  mower  by 
first  of  June,  and  by  the  end  of  that  month  will  present  the  appearance  of  a  good 
lawn. 

A  fine  lawn  can  not  be  maintained  without  frequent  mowing,  and  now  that  numer- 
ous and  cheap  and  efficient  lawn  mowers  are  to  be  found  everywhere,  there  is  really 
no  excuse  for  imperfectly  kept  lawns. 

During  the  first  summer  the  cuttings  of  the  mower  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  surface  as  a  mulch,  but  experience  shows  that  the  practice  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended after  the  first  year. 

It  is  pernicious  to  sow  oats,  rye,  barley,  or  other  grains  with  the  grass  seed.  These 
strong-growing  plants  rob  the  soil  and  injure  the  growth  of  the  lower  grasses.  They 
do  not  require  any  protection  of  this  kind,  and  many  failures  in  lawn-making  can  be 
traced  to  the  practice  of  mixing  these  with  the  grass  seeds. 

BRAZIL  NUT. 

W.  W.  W. ,  Iowa.  I  wish  to  know  whether  the  tree  that  bears  Brazil  nuts  will  thrive 
in  the  United  States,  and  whether  they  will  bear  much,  if  any,  frost  without  injury, 
and  whether  they  will  thrive  where  oranges  and  almonds  do.  Also,  best  mode  of 
starting  young  trees  from  the  nut. 

Ansicer. — The  tree  that  yields  these  nuts  is  the  Bertholletia  excelsa,  a  native  of 
Guiana,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil.  It  is  found  in  large  forests  on  the  banks  of  the  Ama- 
zon, and  is  therefore  strictly  a  tropical  tree,  and  would  not  be  at  all  likely  to  grow 
to  any  degree  of  perfection  in  Florida. 

Climates  suited  to  almonds  and  oranges  are  no  criterion  for  tropical  vegetation. 
The  former  will  grow  wherever  peaches  do  well,  and  a  bearing  orange  tree  will  with- 
stand 10°  of  frost  without  injury. 

CHICLE   GUM. 

K.  P.,  New  York  City.  Among  the  importations  at  this  port  is  an  article  called 
Chicle  Gum.  After  considerable  inquiry  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  the  name  of  the 
plant  which  produced  it,  but  have  learned  that  it  comes  from  Mexico. 

If  you  can  tell  me  the  name  of  the  tree  or  plant,  and  where  it  can  be  obtained,  I 
should  like  to  try  it  in  Clay  County,  Florida,  where  I  have  interests. 

Answer. — Chicle  Gum  is  furnished  by  Sapota  achras,  a  tree  of  the  West  Indies  and 
of  some  parts  of  Mexico. 

The  fruit  is  called  Naseberry,  or  Sapodilla  plum.  It  is  stated  that  the  succulent 
gnrnrny  pulp  surrounding  the  seeds  is  named  chicle,  and  that  it  is  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  gum-drops. 

The  tree  will  not  flourish  in  Clay  County,  Florida,  although  it  is  to  be  found  grow- 
ing in  the  southern  extremes  of  the  State,  where  it  has  been  introduced. 
28581 7 


98 


OPIUM  POPPY. 

C.  E.,  Liberty  County,  Georgia.  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  opium  poppy 
will  do  well  here,  and  would  try  it  if  I  had  enough  seed  of  the  right  variety  to  make 
a  plantation  of  several  acres.  Can  you  furnish  seed  or  procure  it  for  me  at  my  ex- 
pense ? 

I  should  be  obliged  for  any  information  in  regard  to  its  culture,  and  how  best  to 
get  the  opium  from  it. 

Answer.  —  So  far  as  climate  is  to  be  considered  the  poppy  plant  will  grow  in  Georgia, 
and,  indeed,  in  most  of  the  United  States,  and  seed  can  easily  be  secured,  and  the  plants 
are  easily  raised.  The  soil  should  be  very  finely  pulverized  on  the  surface,  and  the  seed 
sown  in  shallow  drills,  or  rather  mere  marks.  The  seeds  are  very  minute  and  should 
be  mixed  in  fifty  parts  of  dry  sand,  then  sand  and  seed  sprinkled  thinly  on  the  sur- 
face and  covered  simply  by  passing  a  light  roller  over  them.  These  drills  may  be  2 
feet  apart,  and  when  the  plants  appear  they  are  thinned  out  so  that  they  will  be 
from  6  so  8  inches  apart. 

It  is  highly  improbable  that  it  can  be  profitably  produced  in  this  country,  as  may 
be  gleaned  from  the  details  of  collecting  the  juice. 

When  the  seed  pods  are  properly  matured  the  milky  juice  is  obtained  by  making 
incisions  in  the  pods  with  small  lancets.  This  requires  great  care,  so  that  the  incis- 
ion is  not  made  through  the  entire  substance  of  the  pod  ;  the  surface  is  only  scari- 
fied. The  cutting  being  performed  in  the  afternoon,  the  opium  is  allowed  to  exude 
and  remain  on  the  pod  till  next  morning,  when  it  is  scraped  off,  drop  by  drop,  and 
thus  collected  in  a  small  cup.  Successive  incisions  are  required  to  secure  complete 
exudation. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  process  is  slow  and  tedious,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  average 
pay  of  the  operators  does  not  reach  10  cents  per  day. 

The  factory  operations  in  preparing  the  article  for  commerce  are  also  tedious  and 
complicated,  involving  much  manual  labor,  which  is  cheaply  procured  in  Asiatic 
countries. 

CAMPHOR  TREE. 

J.  S.  R.^Hernaudo  County,  Florida.  A  camphor  tree  received  from  your  Depart- 
ment 6  years  ago  has  grown  up  into  a  fine  tree  some  15  feet  in  height.  It  is  a  beau- 
tiful ornamental  tree,  and  is  valuable  on  that  account  alone,  but  if  this  is  the  tree 
from  which  the  camphor  of  trade  is  obtained  I  would  be  obliged  if  you  can  inform 
me  how  to  get  it.  I  have  tried  cutting  the  bark,  but  could  not  see  any  exudation 
of  gum. 

Answer.  —  The  camphor  tree  (Camphora  officinarum)  is  a  native  of  China  and  Japan, 
and  yields  the  camphor  of  commerce. 

Camphor  is  obtained  by  chopping  the  wood  into  small  pieces  and  boiling  them 
with  water  in  an  iron  vessel  till  the  camphor  begins  to  adhere  to  the  stirring  utensil; 
the  liquor  is  then  strained,  and  the  camphor  concretes  on  standing.  It  is  afterwards 
mixed  with  finely  powdered  earth  and  sublimed  from  one  metallic  vessel  into  an- 
other. 

In  Japan  the  chips  are  boiled  in  a  vessel  to  which  an  earthen  head  containing 
straw  has  been  fitted,  and  the  camphor  sublimes  and  condenses  on  the  straw.  Crude 
camphor  very  much  resembles  moist  sugar  before  it  is  cleaned  j  it  is  refined  by  sub- 
limation, an  operation  which  requires  care  and  experience. 


E.S.,  Putnam  County,  Florida.     I  have  seen  a  statement  that  the  Bahia  orange, 
as  seen  in  the  greenhouse  in  Washington,  has  no  pollen  on  its  blossoms,  and  that  is 


99 

given  as  a  reason  for  its  poor  bearing  in  Florida.  I  would  like  you  to  answer  me  the 
following  questions : 

If  the  want  of  the  pollen  is  the  cause  of  its  not  fruiting  in  Florida,  why  does  it 
fruit  so  well  in  California? 

If  it  has  no  pollen,  how  does  it  happen  that  it  affects  trees  all  around  it  and  causes 
them  to  produce  navel  oranges  ? 

Answer. — The  statement  has  not  been  made  that  because  the  Bahia  orange  flowers 
are  lacking  in  pollen  here  this  variety  does  not  fruit  well  in  Florida,  but  rather  that 
it  does  not  fruit  well  there  for  the  same  reason,  that  is,  want  of  pollen  to  properly 
pollenize  the  pistil;  this  we  know  to  be  a  fact  from  personal  inspection  of  trees  of 
this  variety  when  in  flower  in  Florida.  Since  the  first  flowering  of  the  Bahia  here, 
quite  a  dozen  years  ago,  this  defect  has  been  recognized.  After  the  fruit  became  pop- 
ular in  California  it  was  ascertained  by  inquiry  that  while  the  trees  did  not  bear  so 
abundantly  as  many  other  varieties,  yet  it  produced  a  fairly  profitable  crop  in  that 
State. 

It  therefore  seems  probable  that  the  climatic  and  cultural  conditions  permit  of  a 
better  development  of  pollen  in  California  than  in  Florida  and  in  some  other  places. 
This  would  not  be  an  exceptional  case.  It  is  well  known  that  climatic  conditions 
affect  the  pollen  of  plants.  Those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  saving  seeds  know  that 
plants  will  often  fail  to  set  seeds  in  the  extreme  heat  of  summer,  but  will  produce 
fruit  and  seed  abundantly  later  in  the  season  when  the  temperature  is  lower.  The 
reverse  of  this  is  also  known  ;  some  plants  will  only  seed  well  during  the  warmest 
part  of  the  season,  and  fail  to  do  so  in  cooler  weather.  Whether  the  flowering  season 
of  the  Bahia  in  California  is  more  favorable  to  the  ripening  of  its  pollen  than  is  its 
flowering  season  in  Florida  is  a  point  to  be  determined. 

With  regard  to  the  question :  If  this  navel  orange  has  no  pollen,  how  does  it  hap- 
pen that  it  affects  trees  all  around  it  and  causes  them  to  produce  navel  oranges  ?  it 
may  be  stated  that  this  question  has  been  frequently  similarly  presented  for  expla- 
nation. Presented  in  this  manner  it  suggests  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  ob- 
servation of  those  who  have  been  unable  to  find  pollen  in  the  flowers  of  this  variety 
of  orange;  at  the  same  time  it  furnishes  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  pollen  on  the 
trees  which  are  stated  to  exert  so  powerful  an  influence  upon  their  neighbors.  The 
question  can  therefore  only  be  looked  upon  as  an  imaginary  hypothesis. 

The  absence  or  presence  of  pollen  in  a  blossom  is  a  matter  easily  determined;  a 
few  minutes  of  inspection  would  enable  the  observer  to  state  definitely  whether  it 
has  no  pollen  or  the  reverse. 

If  the  statement  is  varied,  that  the  tree  has  an  abundance  of  perfect  pollen,  the 
cause  of  nonproductiveness  would  then  become  a  question  of  further  inquiry.  This 
direct  evidence  of  an  abundance  of  pollen  would  be  entitled  to  a  degree  of  respect 
which  is  certainly  not  afforded  by  the  supposition  that  because  other  fruit  show  a 
navel  mark  therefore  the  suspected  tree  must  have  had  an  abundance  of  perfect 
pollen. 

The  navel  mark  on  oranges  is  a  very  indefinite  article.  Sometimes  fruits  may  be 
taken  from  a  tree  some  of  which  will  have  a  scarcely  preceptible  indentation  as  a 
mark,  while  others  will  show  a  protuberance  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  cause  of 
this  mark  has  not  been  explained.  This  much  may,  however,  be  looked  upon  as 
certain,  that  if  a  vegetable  physiologist  picked  a  fruit  having  something  of  a  navel 
mark  from  a  tree  of  the  St.  Michael's,  or  from  a  tree  of  Maltese  oval,  or  from  one  of 
any  variety  not  known  as  a  navel,  he  would  not  be  apt  to  attribute  the  appearance 
of  the  mark  to  pollen  influence  of  any  kind.  X^  V/ 

CANARY   SEED. 

G.  M.  E.,  Cecil  County,  Maryland.  I.  write  for  information  upon  the  subject  of  canary 
seed.  I  have  in  view  the  subject  of  planting  it  for  a  crop  if  it  will  grow  here  and 

pay.  '  I  shall  be  obliged  for  what  information  you  ean  give  mq  as  to  the  character  of 

J    ^~  f~*-. 

^        ',  \  fa  .  1^-1 


A          1   .    _  _\     ^    ^.     .    .       PI  *Ci   ^  '    .*•  4/  I  FTT't^«^>£^C^*V*?*' 


100 

the  plant,  the  probability  of  its  successful  growth  here,  yield  per  acre,  time  of  sow- 
ing, etc. 

Answer. — Canary  seed  is  produced  by  a  species  of  grass,  Phalaris  canariensis,  said 
to  be  a  native  of  Asia,  but  found  growing  wild  in  various  parts  of  the  eastern  world. 

But  little  is  known  here  about  its  yield  or  the  profits  pertaining  to  its  culture.  It 
is  stated  that  the  amount  entering  into  consumption  annually  is  about  200,000 
bushels,  and  it  is  chiefly  from  Turkey  and  Barbary. 

As  cultivated  in  these  countries  the  seeds  are  sown  early  in  spring,  in  drills  6 
inches  apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  to  2  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  It  is  a  slow- 
growing,  slender-stemmed  plant,  requiring  frequent  hoeing  to  keep  weeds  from 
destroying  it.  Much  care  is  required  in  harvesting,  as  the  seeds  fall  off  easily.  Birds 
are  fond  of  it  when  it  is  opening.  In  some  countries  the  seeds  are  fed  to  race  horses, 
as  they  are  said  to  strengthen  muscle  without  being  fattening.  No  doubt  the  plant 
will  grow  well  in  Maryland.  Probably  there  would  be  but  little  profit  in  its  pro- 
duction. This  can  only  be  ascertained  from  a  practical  experiment. 

TREE-PLANTING. 

J.  R.  E.,  Fairfax  County,  Virginia,  The  question  as  to  the  best  time  to  plant 
shade  trees,  of  apple  and  pear  trees,  has  been  discussed  at  our  club  meeting.  Some 
prefer  fall  planting  because  the  soil  becomes  well  settled  about  the  roots  before  spring 
and  the  trees  do  much  better  than  those  planted  in  the  spring ;  others  maintain  that 
fall  planting  has  no  advantages,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  have  lost  trees  which 
were  set  out  just  before  winter  set  in,  and  consider  spring  planting  to  be  more  reli- 
able. Can  the  Department  of  Agriculture  advise  us  of  the  results  and  conclusions 
reached  on  these  points  ? 

Answer. — Fall  planting  is  preferable  to  spring  planting  because  the  conditions  of 
the  soil  and  climate  are  then  more  favorable.  In  propagating  plants  by  cuttings  it 
is  found  that  rooting  is  most  successful  when  the  bed  in  which  the  cuttings  are 
inserted  is  15  or  20  degrees  warmer  than  the  atmosphere  surrounding  them.  The 
heated  soil  encourages  the  formation  of  roots,  while  the  cool  atmosphere  prevents 
bud  growths.  When  these  conditions  are  reversed  the  cutting  will  grow  for  a  time 
without  forming  roots. 

It  is  found  that  during  the  month  of  October  in  this  locality  the  soil  averages  sev- 
eral degrees  warmer  than  the  atmosphere.  This  gives  a  kind  of  natural  hot-bed  into 
which  we  place  a  newly  removed  tree  ;  the  formation  of  young  roots  commences  at 
once,  and  in  a  few  weeks  a  good  system  of  roots  is  established,  enabling  the  tree  to 
stand  the  vicissitudes  of  winter  and  make  an  early  and  vigorous  start  the  following 
spring. 

If  planting  is  delayed  until  spring  these  physical  conditions  of  soil  and  atmosphere 
are  to  a  certain  degree  reversed;  the  soil  is  then  cold  and  accumulates  heat  slowly, 
while  the  air  rapidly  increases  in  warmth.  Trees  planted  at  this  time  will  have  the 
buds  excited  to  growth,  and  leaves  will  be  formed  in  advance  of  the  roots;  these  ex- 
tract sap  from  the  branches  and  the  stem  of  the  tree,  which  as  yet  has  no  active  roots 
to  supply  this  demand.  If  the  weather  proves  to  be  dry  and  warm  the  evaporation 
will  either  destroy  the  tree  or  greatly  check  its  growth  and  well-doing.  This  is  the 
reason  why  spring-planted  trees  occasionally  come  out  into  leaf,  apparently  vigorous 
and  healthy,  but  will  suddenly  wither  and  die  under  the  influence  of  dry  weather. 

From  the  above  it  will  appear  evident  that  fall  planting  should  be  performed  as 
soon  as  the  leaves  drop.  In  fact  it  is  most  successful  when  the  leaves  are  stripped 
from  the  trees,  not  later  than  the  middle  of  October,  and  planting  done  at  once.  If 
delayed  beyond  the  middle  of  November  in  this  locality  success  will  be  less  certain 
and  none  of  the  advantages  of  fall  planting  secured.  Many  failures  occur  by  thus 
delaying  the  work,  and  fall  planting  is  denounced  as  wrong  in  practice. 


101 

PKAR  BLIGHT. 

J.  D.,  Kansas.  What  effect  has  the  stock  on  pear  blight  ?  The  original  Kieffer  tree 
is  said  to  be  free  from  blight,  and  for  years  it  was  claimed  that  all  Kieffers  were 
blight-proof,  yet  of  late  years  we  have  undoubtable  evidence  that  they  do  blight. 
Now,  why  this  change?  Is  it  from  foreign  sap  introduced  into  the  tree  throngn 
buddhig  and  grafting  ?  First  it  was  budded  on  the  common  pear  stock,  then  scions 
from  that  were  grafted  on  another,  and  so  the  process  was  continued  until  the  original 
sap,  we  might  say,  has  all  been  worked  out,  and  as  a  consequence  we  have  blight. 

The  Le  Conte  pear  was  claimed  to  be  exempt  from  blight,  yet  we  find  in  late  years 
it  has  blighted.  Those  who  profess  to  know  say  that  there  has  never  been  a  case  of 
blight  on  any  tree  that  can  be  traced  back  to  the  original  cuttings,  but  the  blight  is 
only  on  trees  which  have  been  grafted. 

Now  the  question  arises,  are  any  pear  trees  blight-proof;  and  if  so,  can  they  be  kept 
in  that  condition  by  propagating  only  from  cuttings? 

Answer. — It  may  be  said  that  those  who  claimed  that  the  Kieffer  pear  would  be 
blight-proof  simply  made  a  mistake.  As  its  culture  extended  and  plantations  were 
set  out  in  different  localities  cases  of  blight  were  reported.  When  the  Kieffer  comes 
under  the  influences  which  cause  blight,  it  seems  to  be  just  as  sensitive  as  many  other 
varieties  of  its  species. 

The  causes  of  blight  on  the  pear  are  not  yet  understood.  The  opinion  that  it  is 
caused  by  bacteria  is  quite  prevalent,  but  there  are  many  others  who  maintain  that 
bacteria  is  not  the  cause  of  the  disease,  but  exists  because  of  the  disease ;  in  other 
words,  that  bacteria  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  origin  of  disease  in  plants  or  animals, 
but  let  the  animal  tissue  die  and  it  is  in  the  condition  to  decompose,  and  can  only  do 
so  by  bacterial  growth.  The  same  with  plants.  The  germs  of  bacteria  swarm  in  the 
air  and  are  always  ready  to  light  upon  disorganized  tissue  and  perform  the  great  and 
important  task  of  reducing  the  vegetable  world  to  its  ultimate  elements. 

Budding  upon  other  than  the  Kieffer  stock  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  blight.  The 
entire  foliage  being  Kieffer  will  naturally  determine  and  control  the  cell  growth  of 
the  whole  plant. 

The  claims  pjade  for  the  Le  Conte  pear  as  being  blight-proof  rest  on  no  better  foun- 
dation. Trees  of  this  variety  procured  from  Thomasville,  Georgia,  which  were  propa- 
gated from  cuttings,  have  blighted  badly,  so  badly  as  to  entirely  destroy  the  tree. 
They  have  suffered  more  than  the  Kieffer  under  similar  conditions ;  that  is,  they  were 
growing  within  40  feet  of  each  other. 

If  any  variety  of  pear  is  blight-proof  it  has  not  yet  been  made  known,  and  it  is 
beyond  controversy  that  pear  trees  raised  from  cuttings  are  just  as  liable  to  be  at- 
tacked by  blight  as  are  varieties  propagated  by  any  other  method. 

COFFEE. 

W.  H.  M.,  Sanford,  Florida.  ,  I  shall  be  pleased  to  receive,  at  your  earliest  conven- 
ience, as  many  coffee  plants  as  you  can  spare  me ;  also  as  much  coffee  seed  as  you 
can  send. 

I  have  had  several  years'  experience  in  coffee  growing  in  southern  India,  and  want 
to  try  it  here,  as  I  think  the  climate  and  soil  well  adapted  to  successful  cultivation 
of  coffee. 

Answer. — The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century 
made  yearly  distributions  of  coffee  plants,  sending  them  to  the  warmest  localities  in 
the  United  States,  but  the  returns  have  not  been  of  a  nature  to  warrant  further  con- 
tinuance of  the  distribution  of  these  plants  so  far  as  relates  to  the  object  in  view  of 
establishing  a  profitable  industry. 

It  is  true  that  several  years  ago  a  small  quantity  of  ripened  berries  were  produced 
on  coffee  plants  growing  near  the  Manatee  River,  but  it  was  understood  that  these 
plants  were  in  a  very  well  sheltered  position,  and  received  additional  protection 


102 

during  the  severest  weather  in  winter.  Subsequently  these  trees  were  frozen  to  the 
ground  by  a  cold  of  unusual  severity  for  that  locality. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  coffee  can  not  become  a  profitable  crop  at  Sauford,  Florida, 
where  a  lowering  of  temperature  down  to  or  below  the  point  of  fieezing  occurs 
almost  every  winter.  Although  the  freezing  point  may  not  be  reached,  yet  oc- 
casional low  temperatures  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  months  retards  the  ripening  of 
the  fruit,  even  when  the  plant  is  apparently  uninjured.  A  tropical  climate  means 
something  more  than  mere  exemption  from  frost. 

Experienced  coffee-growers  state  that  the  culture  is  not  commercially  profitable  in 
a  climate  where  the  thermometer  falls  below  50°  F.  at  any  time  during  the  year. 
The  plant  will  survive  a  much  lower  temperature  than  the  above,  but  this  estimate 
refers  to  the  value  of  the  crop. 

MUSTARD   SEED. 

J.  W.  H.,  West  Virginia.  I  am  using  in  my  business  a  large  quantity  of  mustard 
seed,  and  being  desirous  of  raising  the  seed  in  this  section  I  write  for  information  as 
to  its  culture. 

Answer.—  Black-seeded  mustard  (Sinapsis  wi#ra)and  white-seeded  mustard  (Sivapsis 
alba)  are  the  kinds  usually  cultivated.  The  former  is  said  to  have  the  preference  for 
manufacture  into  flour. 

As  far  as  can  be  learned  there  have  been  but  few  attempts  to  cultivate  the  mustard 
plant  in  this  country,  and  the  results  obtained  have  not  been  very  satisfactory. 

Mustard  requires  a  rich,  loamy  soil  for  its  growth.  It  is  sown  in  spring,  usually 
broadcast,  although  sometimes  in  drills  about  1  foot  apart.  The  soil  requires  to 
have  a  finely  pulverized  surface  before  sowing,  so  that  the  seed  may  be  equally  cov- 
ered by  harrow  and  roller ;  if  they  are  covered  more  than  one-half  inch  with  soil 
they  may  remain  dormant  for  many  years.  It  is  found  that  buried  mustard  seeds 
will  remain  dormant  for  decades  and  vegetate  when  brought  near  the  surface;  so  it 
is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  it  in  fields  where  it  has  once  been  grown,  the  seeds  shaken 
out  in  harvesting  being  sufficient  to  furnish  a  crop,  as  weeds,  for  many  years. 

About  one-half  peck  of  seed  will  sow  an  acre,  and  a  good  crop  will  return  30  bushels  • 
per  acre.     This  quantity  is  procured  only  where  soil  and  climate  conduce  to  best 
results.     In  dry  seasons  this  amount  would  be  much  reduced. 

GRAPE   ROT. 

J.  K.,  Fairfax  County,  Virginia.  My  grapes  were,  I  may  say,  a  complete  failure 
this  year  from  rot.  Ever  since  my  vines  commenced  bearing  they  have  suffered  more 
or  less,  some  seasons  less  than  others.  Four  years  ago  I  may  say  that  the  crop  was 
as  total  a  failure  as  this.  Last  year  I  saved  a  good  half  crop.  I  need  not  say  that  I 
am  discouraged,  and  will  abandon  the  culture  if  this  disease  continues,  but  I  am  loath 
to  dig  them  up  if  anything  can  be  done  to  save  them.  They  have  been  carefully 
pruned  and  fertilized  with  bone,  the  land  is  not  poor,  and  the  vines  make  plenty  of 
growth. 

What  is  the  general  result  of  putting  paper  bags  over  the  bunches  ?  If  any  parti- 
cular point  in  culture  or  management  can  modify  or  extirpate  this  ruinous  infliction 
I  would  be  glad  to  know  it. 

Answer. — As  to  the  general  result  of  putting  paper  bags  over  the  bunches,  it  may 
be  stated  that  it  is  successful.  Some  few  report  unfavorably,  but  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  place  the  bunches  in  bags  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  formed,  and  that, 
when  the  covering  is  delayed  much  beyond  this  period,  rotted  berries  have  been 
found  in  the  bags. 

It  has  long  been  observed  and  noted  that  grapevines  protected  by  a  canopy  or  cov- 
ering, such  as  the  projecting  eaves  of  a  building,  or  even  the  casual  protection  af- 
forded them  when  growing  up  through  the  branches  of  a  tree,  are  measurably  exetnp- 
from  fungous  diseases.  Recent  reports  show  that  grapes  under  a  board  or  even  must 
lin  cover  are  almost  entirely  exempt  from  rot.  A  protected  grape  trellis  is  described 


103 

and  figured  in  the  Agricultural  Report  for  1861.  and  was  in  use  in  the  garden  of  the 
Department  for  many  years,  with  the  best  results.  This  board- covered  trellis  was 
substituted  by  a  T-shaped  trellis,  the  flat  top  being  wired,  and  the  vines  allowed  to 
cover  it  with  a  dense  mass  of  foliage.  This  arrangement  was  found  to  be  quite  as 
effectual  in  protecting  from  mildew  and  rot  as  the  more  solid  but  more  expensive 
cover  of  boards.  In  this  case  the  more  robust  growing  varieties  of  grapes  were 
planted  at  intervals  of  30  feet,  and  trained  exclusively  on  top  of  the  trellis.  So  far 
as  economy  is  concerned  this  plan  has  an  advantage  over  all  others,  inasmuch  as  the 
vines  used  for  protection  also  yield  their  crop  of  fruit. 

Even  on  the  ordinary  wired  trellis  exemption  from  rot  has  been  observed  when 
the  summer  growth  has  been  allowed  to  accumulate  on  the  top  wire,  and  the  ends  of 
long  shoots  and  laterals  allowed  to  hang  down  like  a  screen  over  the  plants.  To 
secure  this  heavy  top  growth  summer  pruning  will  be  abandoned,  which  is  perhaps 
an  advantage  to  the  crop.  Summer  pruning,  when  done  at  all,  is  usually  overdone, 
and  is  but  little  practiced  by  the  most  successful  grape-growers. 

LICORICE. 

P.  W.  J.,  Accomack  County,  Virginia.  I  would  be  greatly  indebted  if  you  will  let 
me  know  what  you  think  about  the  culture  of  licorice  in  this  county.  Our  winters 
are  not  quite  so  severe  as  at  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  and  my  soil  is  some- 
what sandy.  I  am  anxious  to  learn  something  about  its  cultivation,  and  whether 
the  crop  would  be  a  profitable  one  to  raise. 

Answer. — So  far  as  regards  the  cold  of  winter  the  licorice  will  not  be  injured,  but 
its  profitable  culture  may  be  considered  as  doubtful. 

To  produce  good  licorice  roots  the  soil  must  be  rich,  and  it  must  be  deeply  worked, 
at  least  to  a  depth  of  2  feet.  It  is  very  essential  to  have  a  deep  soil  to  allow  the 
downward  growth  of  the  roots,  which  increases  their  commercial  value  and  enables 
the  plant  to  withstand  hot,  dry  summers,  for  if  the  plants  are  weakened  or  checked 
in  luxuriance  they  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  red  spider,  which  destroys  the 
foliage. 

The  plants  are  propagated  by  the  slender  side  roots,  which  are  removed  in  trim- 
ming the  saleable  portions.  They  are  set  in  the  prepared  soil  by  making  a  perpen- 
dicular hole  with  a  sharp  pointed  stick  or  dibble  and  inserting  the  root  slip  so  ttat 
it  will  be  covered  entirely,  exactly  as  horseradish  sets  are  planted. 

Frequent  hoeing  will  be  necessary  during  the  summer,  not  only  to  destroy  weeds, 
but  to  maintain  growth,  and  the  deeper  the  culture,  without  hurting  the  roots,  the 
better  the  plants. 

As  winter  approaches  the  tops  will  become  yellow,  and  after  growth  is  completed 
they  can  be  cleaned  off  and  the  plants  covered  with  manure. 

At  the  end  of  the  third  summer's  growth,  if  the  plants  have  done  well,  the  roots 
will  be  large  enough  for  market.  The  process  of  digging  out  and  harvesting  the 
roots  is  perhaps  the  most  tedious  operation  with  the  crop.  They  run  from  2  to  more 
feet  in  depth  and  can  only  be  secured  safely  by  the  use  of  the  spadfy  so  that  the 
whole  root  may  be  secured  without  breakage. 

The  marketable  portions  are  trimmed  of  all  side  roots,  washed,  dried,  and  tied  in 
bundles  for  sale. 

The  labor  and  cost  of  manure  for  thorough  preparation  of  the  ground  from  2  to  3 
feet  in  depth,  the  planting  and  cultivation  for  3  or  4  years  in  producing  one  crop, 
and  the  cost  of  harvesting  the  roots  leads  to  the  opinion  that  its  profitable  culture  is 
doubtful,  at  least  while  the  price  of  the  article  remains  as  at  present. 

PRUNING  GRAPES. 

.  F.  M.  D.,  Steuben  County,  New  York.  There  seems  to  be  a  diversity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  best  time  to  prune  the  grapevine.  Some  prune  in  the  fall  and  others  any  time 
during  the  winter  or  spring.  Many  growers  think  there  is  no  particular  time  better 


104 

than  another  so  far  as  fruit  is  concerned.  If  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  any 
rule  for  this  operation  I  would  be  obliged  for  information  as  to  the  time,  and  why 
any  particular  time  is  preferred. 

Answer. — The  best  time  for  the  winter  pruning  of  grapes  is  soon  after  the  fall  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  sooner  the  better,  for  the  reason  that  the  buds  will  push  with  more 
vigor  in  spring,  will  bear  better  fruit,  will  ripen  somewhat  earlier.  This  arises  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  plant  during  winter  continues  to  absorb  more  or  less  nu- 
triment by  its  roots,  which  is  distributed  in  the  branches  or  wood.  If,  therefore, 
pruning  is  delayed  until  the  approach  of  spring  this  winter  accumulation  is  largely 
destroyed  and  lost.  When,  however,  the  vine  is  pruned  in  the  fall  the  winter  accu- 
mulation of  increase  will  be  deposited  in  the  buds  and  parts  left  after  pruning,  and 
such  buds  will  start  vigorously  and,  in  consequence  of  their  better  development,  the 
fruit  they  show  will  be  increased,  and  the  shoots  will  advance  rapidly  in  growth  and 
attain  maturity  sooner  than  those  from  weaker  buds,  as  may  be  tested  by  compara- 
tive trials  and  close  observation  of  results. 

This  becomes  a  matter  of  considerable  importance  in  localities  where  the  growing 
season  is  barely  of  sufficient  length  to  ripen  the  fruit. 

TONKA    BEAN. 

N.  B.  G.,  Orange  County,  Florida.  Among  other  tropical  plants  which  I  am  trying 
to  grow  I  would  like  to  raise  the  Tonka  bean  plant,  and  would  be  greatly  obliged 
for  some  plants  or  seeds  of  it  for  trial,  also  some  information  as  to  the  particular  value 
and  use  of  the  bean. 

I  hear  of  a  wild  vanilla  said  to  be  growing  in  some  parts  of  this  State ;  would  like 
to  know  something  about  it  and  where  seeds  or  plants  can  be  secured. 

Answer. — The  Tonka  bean  is  the  seed  of  a  tropical  tree  of  Guiana,  called  Dipterix 
odorata,  which  reaches  to  a  height  of  60  or  80  feet.  The  bean  has  a  strong  odor, 
somewhat  resembling  that  of  cloves,  and  is  due  to  the  principle  called  coumariue,  a 
fragrant  principle  found  in  the  dried  leaves  of  the  vernal  grass,  Anthoxantkum  odora- 
fuw,  and  in  the  leaves  of  the  yellow  melilot,  Melilotus  officinalis.  The  Tonka  bean 
has  been  used  to  scent  snuff,  hence  it  is  called  the  snuff  bean.  It  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed to  adulterate  vanilla.  It  imparts  to  true  vanilla  a  sharp,  rank  odor  and  taste, 
which  some  persons  think  indicate  "  strength,"  but  it  detracts  from  the  genuine  va- 
nilla flavor. 

The  Dipterix  would  not  succeed  with  you,  as  it  requires  a  strictly  tropical  climate. 

The  term  wild  vanilla  is  given  to  a  composite  plant  of  the  Southern  States,  called 
Liatris  odoratissima.  The  driud  leaves  emit  a  peculiar  odor,  alao  due  to  the  princi- 
ple coumarine.  The  leaves  are  used  in  scenting  tobacco  and  snuff.  The  Liatris  is 
found  in  swampy  woods  throughout  Florida,  which,  with  the  assistance  of  a  local 
botanist,  you  can  procure  without  much  trouble  or  expense. 

ZANTE  CURRANT. 

H.  H.  M.,  San  Bernardino  County,  California.  I  am  anxious  to  test  the  soil  here 
in  producing  the  "Zante  Currant,"  and  desire  to  know  the  kind  of  vine  that  pro- 
duces this  fruit  and  where  plants  can  be  obtained. 

Answer. — The  Zante  Currant  is  the  product  of  a  variety  of  the  foreign  grape  and 
will  undoubtedly  grow  where  other  varieties  of  Vitis  vinifera  flourish. 

It  is  merely  a  seedless  form  of  a  black  grape ;  the  origin  or  cause  of  its  being  seed- 
less has  not  clearly  been  explained,  except  that  it  results  from  a  deficiency  of  pollen 
at  the  blooming  period  of  the  flowers.  Similar  results  are  not  uncommon  with  Black 
Hamburg  and  other  varieties  when  grown  in  glass  structures;  bunches  will  some- 
times fail  to  be  properly  pollenized,  so  that  a  few  berries  may  reach  full  size  with  a 
more  or  less  percentage  of  small  seedless  fruits. 

Statements  have -been  made  that  Zante  currants  can  be  produced  only  in  Greece, 


105 

and  that  in  other  countries  where  it  has  been  tried  the  plant  will  produce  so  many 
full-formed  berries  as  to  depreciate  its  value  as  a  currant  crop. 

The  plant  has  long  been  introduced  into  California  and  is  advertised  for  sale  by 
various  nurserymen  throughout  the  State. 

LIME   WASH  FOR  TREES. 

E.  D.  S.,  Steuben  County,  New  York.  I  am  told  that  the  Department  recommends 
the  whitewashing  of  fruit  trees  as  a  cure  for  blights,  yellows,  and  other  diseases.  If 
this  is  true,  may  I  ask  what  this  wash  consists  of,  and  how  applied  so  as  not  to  injure 
the  tree.  Will  not  the  clogging  of  the  pores  in  the  bark  of  the  tree  by  a  coating  of 
lime  or  other  wash  do  more  harm  than  good? 

Some  of  my  apple  and  pear  trees  have  blighted  to  some  extent,  but  I  have  seen  it 
stated  that  washing  the  bark  of  trees  has  no  effect,  either  as  a  preventive  or  as  a 
cure  for  blight.  Can  you  inform  me  on  this  point  ? 

Answer. — The  reports  of  this  Department  have  nowhere  recommended  whitewash- 
ing as  a  cure  for  "yellows  and  other  plant  diseases,"  but  frequent  mention  has  been 
made  of  the  application  on  pear  and  other  trees  as  a  preventive  of  blight,  at  least  on 
the  parts  covered  with  the  mixture.  No  harm  need  be  feared  in  regard  to  clogging 
the  pores  in  the  bark,  as  there  are  no  pores  in  the  bark  that  can  be  harmed  by  the 
application. 

The  wash  is  prepared  by  placing  one-half  bushel  of  lime  and  8  pounds  of  powdered 
sulphur  in  a  vessel  of  any  suitable  kind,  covering  with  boiling  water  to  properly 
slacken  the  lime. 

The  mixture  is  applied  with  a  brush,  covering  all  parts  of  the  tree  that  can  readily 
be  reached.  The  most  potent  ingredient  of  the  wash  is  the  sulphur.  The  heat  of  the 
sun  acting  upon  the  wash  evolves  sulphurous  gases  which  are  fatal  to  bacteria  and 
microscopic  fungi, which,  as  has  been  demonstrated,  are  active  agents  in  blight.  It  is 
well  known  that  these  microscopic  spores  are  destroyed  by  sulphurous  gases  and  heat 
is  required  to  evolve  them.  Sulphur  applications  are  often  made  for  the  destruction 
of  mildew  on  roses  and  on  other  plants,  but  the  efficacy  of  the  sulphur  depends  upon 
its  connection  with  a  certain  degree  of  heat ;  but  it  must  not  ignite.  The  gases  of 
burning  sulphur  are  fatal  to  the  higher  order  of  vegetation  and  are  speedily  destruc- 
tive to  all  plants. 

Those  who  have  used  this  lime  and  sulphur  wash  on  their  orchard  trees  are  pleased 
with  the  results  and  have  faith  in  its  efficacy  in  preventing  blight. 

But  it  is  well  to  keep  in  view  that,  while  blight  will  not  maintain  on  the  portion 
covered  with  the  wash,  the  fumes  of  the  sulphur  may  not  be  sufficient  to  prevent  blight 
on  the  extreme  points  of  branches  which  can  not  be  reached  with  the  brush.  If 
blight  is  discovered  on  a  twig  or  on  a  branch  it  should  be  removed  without  delay. 
With  this  attention  and  covering  the  main  branches  with  the  wash  losses  from 
blight  need  not  greatly  be  feared. 

RHUBARB. 

N.  E.  C.,  Walton  County,  Georgia.  I  am  anxious  to  purchase  a  small  quantity  of 
seed  of  the  true  medicinal  rhubarb.  If  you  will  .kindly  inform  me  of  its  botan- 
ical name  and  where  it  can  be  obtained,  and  anything  you  may  know  about  its  cul- 
ture or  preparation  for  market,  you  will  place  me  under  great  obligations.  I  want 
the  best  Turkey  rhubarb,  or  the  best  commercial  kind. 

Answer. — Efforts  hitherto  made  by  the  Department  to  procure  seeds  of  the  best 
medicinal  rhubarb  have  not  been  successful.  It  appears  that  medico-botanists  differ 
in  opinions  as  to  the  species  of  rhubarb  which  yields  the  best  medicinal  root ;  on  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  stated  that  the  roots  of  the  common  kinds,  grown  for  culinary 
purposes  under  the  name  of  pie- plant,  yield  good  medicinal  roots,  and  that  much  of 
the  article  in  commerce  comes  from  this  source. 


106 

It  is  an  article  of  very  ancient  use.  It  is  said  to  be  mentioned  by  Chinese  writers 
4,500  years  ago.  It  is  mentioned  by  early  writers  as  having  been  brought  from 
beyond  the  Bosphorus.  The  Rha,  which  came  into  Europe  by  the  ancient 
caravan  routes  from  northern  China,  by  Bokhara  and  Asia  Minor,  was  Rha -ponticnm, 
and  that  which  came  by  Russia  and  Danube  was  called  Rha-barbarum.  The 
designations  Turkey,  Russia,  East  India,  and  Canton  rhubarb  merely  indicate  the 
commercial  channel  through  which  the  article  has  been  derived  in  modern  times. 

To  the  species  Rheum  paJmatum  has  been  attributed  the  origin  of  Persian,  Turkey, 
Russian,  and  Muscovite  rhubarbs,  and  Chinese  rhubarbs  are  said  to  be  produced 
chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  by  Rheum  australe. 

It  is  now  claimed  that  the  source  of  the  best  medicinal  rhubarb  is  Rheum  officinale,  a 
native  of  Thibet. 

The  ordinary  species  of  rhubarb  are  herbaceous  perennials,  with  a  thick  root  stock 
and  deciduous  leaves.  In  Rheum  officinale,  after  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  its  growth 
from  seed,  the  root  stock  gradually  decays  and  a  stem  is  formed  above  ground  from 
which  roots  are  emitted  to  support  the  plant.  These  stems  have  thick  branches,  often 
from  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  the  parts  used  in  medicine,  and  not  the  rhi- 
zome or  root. 

It  is  considered  that  very  much  of  the  difference  of  appearance  and  quality  of 
commercial  rhubarb  is  largely  owing  to  the  time  of  lifting  the  root  and  the  care  given 
in  its  preparation  for  market.  The  roots  are  in  many  places  taken  up  early  in  autumn. 
The  Chinese  dig  up  the  roots  early  in  spring,  just  before  the  leaves  appear. 

When  the  roots  are  lifted  they  are  first  divested  of  all  small  fibers,  then  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  washing.  After  drying  in  the  sun  for  several  days  they  are  cut  in  thin 
slices,  and  after  a  further  due  exposure  to  the  sun  a  hole  is  bored  in  each  slice  and 
strung  on  a  thread  until  properly  dried. 

The  pieces  are  then  put  through  a  finishing  process  by  being  placed  in  a  close  cyl- 
inder where  they  are  subjected  to  abrasion  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  the  vessel. 
This  smooths  their  surfaces,  liberating  at  the  same  time  a  fine  dust  or  powder  which 
envelopes  each  piece  with  a  fine  bloom,  like  that  upon  the  surface  of  a  ripe  plum. 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  root  if  grown  in  the  warmer  climates  here 
would  be  equal  to  the  best,  provided  species  which  yield  a  good  article  could  be  pro- 
cured. Its  culture  is  simple  and  its  preparation  easily  accomplished. 

GINSENG. 

P.  W.,  Albemarle  County,  Virginia.  Has  the  Chinese  ginseng  plant  been  culti- 
vated in  this  country  ?  I  would  try  it  if  I  knew  where  to  purchase  seed.  If  you  can 
give  me  any  information  as  to  how  seeds  or  plants  can  be  had  and  how  it  is  culti- 
vated I  will  be  obliged  j  also  would  like  to  know  the  probable  profit  of  the  crop, 

Answer. — So  far  as  can  be  learned  ginseng  has  not  been  successfully  cultivated  in 
this  country.  It  is  a  product  of  the  woods,  and  efforts  made  in  its  culture  have  not 
proved  satisfactory.  Chinese  ginseng  is  closely  allied  to  our  native  species;  seeds 
have  occasionally  been  received  from  China  and  Japan,  but  so  far  as  ascertained  they 
have  not  vegetated.  It  is  possible  that  they  soon  lose  their  germinating  power,  as, 
it  is  stated,  the  Japanese  deposit  the  seeds  in  the  ground  as  soon  as  they  are  collected 
in  order  to  keep  them  fresh  until  wanted  to  sow. 

The  Japanese  cultivate  the  plant  to  some  extent,  and  their  method  is  to  select  a 
sheltered  position  and  make  a  bed  of  leaf  mold  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown,  and 
where  the  plants  remain  until  they  are  ready  for  use.  These  beds  are  protected 
from  the  sun  by  a  roof  of  straw  laid  on  poles,  which  are  supported  on  posts.  After 
growing  4  years  the  roots  are  lifted,  carefully  washed  in  boiling  water,  then  dried  in 
a  high  temperature  until  they  become  brittle.  The  best  article  sells  for  about  $5  a 
pound  in  Japan.  It  is  a  plant  w^hich  does  not  submit  readily  to  culture,  and  its  pro- 
duction as  a  profitable  crop  would  be  very  doubtful. 


107 

HORSE-CHESTNUT  TREE. 

B.  D.,  Oswego,  New  York.  I  understand  that  horse-chestnuts  are  raised  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  France,  and  are  used  as  food  for  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs  to 
fatten  them.  The  nut  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  it  is  said  that  the  French  people  use 
some  kind  of  alkali  to  kill  this  bitter  taste  and  thus  make  it  palatable  to  their  cattle. 
I  wish  to  find  this  out,  and  my  reason  is  that  in  this  city  and  county  horse-chestnuts 
are  grown  for  shade  trees,  and  thus  large  quantities  of  the  nuts  are  grown  and  go  to 
waste,  and  we  want  to  know  how  to  use  them.  Also,  the  wood  is  white  and  could  be 
used  for  fancy  work  and  finishing  furniture.  Have  you  data  on  the  utilization  of 
the  horse-chestnut  tree? 

Answer. — The  nuts  of  the  horse-cliestnuttree,  &8culus  Jiippocastanum,  contain  about 
20  per  cent  of  starch,  but  contain  a  bitter  principle,  which  makes  them  unpalatable 
to  most  animals,  although  it  is  stated  that  goats,  sheep,  and  deer  eat  them.  They 
are  some  times  boiled,  whicli  reduces  their  bitterness,  and  are  then  fed  to  poultry. 
When  the  nuts  are  dried  and  reduced  to  a  coarse  flour  the  bitterness  is  removed  by 
simply  washing  the  flour  with  water.  A  paste  made  with  this  flour  before  washing 
is  used  by  bookbinders  and  pasteboard  manufacturers,  its  bitterness  saving  it  from 
the  attacks  of  insects.  The  bitter  principle  is  called  esculin. 

The  following  products  are  obtained  from  the  nuts  in  France : 

(1)  An  alkali  lye  from  the  burnt  seed  vessels. 

(2)  A  charcoal  from  the  skin  of  the  nut,  which  forms  the  base  of  different  printing 
inks. 

(3)  From  the  amylaceous  pulp  the  fecula  is  extracted,  which  can  be  transformed 
into  dextrine,  glucose,  alcohol,  or  vinegar. 

(4)  A  fatty  matter,  which  serves  to  make  a  kind  of  soap,  and  which  is  also  em- 
ployed to  render  certain  mineral  colors  more  fixed  and  solid. 

(5)  A  yellow  coloring  matter,  which  serves  for  various  purposes  of  dyeing. 

(6)  The  ashes  of  the  burnt  nut  contains  75  per  cent  of  potash. 

(7)  The  bark  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  cinchona. 

(8)  Tannin  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  tree,  leaves,  bark,  and  fruit. 

(9)  Water  in  which  the  nuts  are  boiled  is  used  for  bleaching  hemp,  flax,  and  other 
fibers. 

INDIA  GRAINS. 

M.H.N.,  Texas.  During  a  residence  in  India  I  became  acquainted  with  several 
kinds  of  gram  which  are  superior  to  anything  grown  in  this  country  as  feed  for  stock. 
These  grains  are  grown  in  the  dry  regions,  and  for  that  reason  I  think,  they  would  be 
specially  adapted  to  southwestern  Texas.  There  is  a  kind  called  Gram  grown  in 
central  India,  and  in  southern  India  another  kind  also  called  Gram.  These  are  ground 
before  fed  to  stock.  Then  there  is  a  grain  called  Bajery,  which  is  used  for  making 
bread,  of  which  the  yield  per  acre  is  very  large. 

The  Department  might  procure  these  seeds  through  the  consular  service  or  from 
merchants  in  Bombay.  If  they  can  be  secured  I  will  have  them  tried  in  southwestern 
Texas  and  make  known  the  result. 

Answer.— The  word  Gram  is  used  in  India  to  designate  various  kinds  of  peas  and 
beans  grown  for  food,  just  as  we  use  the  word  grain  to  designate  various  useful  seeds. 
Among  the  species  known  as  Gram  the  following  are  noted :  Cicer  arietinum,  Phaseolus 
of  many  kinds,  Dolichos  uniflorus,  Soja  hispida,  and  various  species  of  Vigua,  which 
are  largely  grown  in  the  Southern  States  under  the  name  of  cowpeas.  These,  how- 
ever, are  not  peas  ;  they  are  small  beans. 

Bajery  or  Bajree  is  a  name  applied  to  the  seeds  of  Penicillaria  spicata,  which  is 
well  known  here  as  pearl  millet,  and  may  be  procured  from  most  dealers  in  agricul- 
tural seeds  in  the  United  States. 


108 

SEEDLING  ORANGES. 

M.  E.  R.,  Frederick  County,  Maryland.  I  have  three  orange  and  one  lemon  tree  in 
tubs;  the  plants  are  about  4  feet  high;  the  lemon  tree  is  the  tallest.  They  have 
not  had  any  blossom,  and  I  am  told  that  before  they  will  flower  they  must  be  cut 
down  and  grafted ;  but  the  plants  are  so  tine,  and  I  value  them  so  highly,  having 
raised  them  from  seeds  planted  by  myself,  that  I  will  be  very  sorry  to  have  them  cut 
if  it  can  be  helped.  Please  inform  me  if  it  is  true  that  they  will  not  flower  unless 
they  are  grafted. 

Answer. — Undoubtedly  they  will  flower  without  being  grafted.  Probably  one-half 
of  all  the  fruit-bearing  orange  trees  on  this  continent  have  never  been  grafted,  but 
they  seldom  blossom  until  they  are  8  or  10  years  old,  unless  under  special  treatment. 
This  special  treatment  consists  in  what  is  technically  known  as  "stunting"  the 
plant,  or  allowing  it  to  become  "pot-bound,"  thus  retarding  its  growth  for  want  of 
nourishment,  which  in  all  cases  tends  to  the  formation  of  blossom  buds,  and  checks 
the  growth  of  wood.  But  this  must  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  interfere  with  the 
general  health  of  the  plant,  because  it  would  then  have  a  tendency  to  produce  dis- 


Orange  trees  are  grafted  or  budded  only  when  it  is  desired  to  extend  by  propaga- 
tion any  particular  variety. 

The  orange  reproduces  itself  from  seed  more  closely  than  most  varieties  of  tree 
fruits,  but  no  dependence  can  be  placed  upon  this  mode  of  reproduction  for  absolute 
similarity  in  all  of  the  essential  qualities.  But  budding  or  grafting  has  a  tendency 
to  hasten  the  flowering  period,  and  the  operation  is  often  performed  for  this  purpose 
on  the  orange  where  it  is  grown  only  as  an  ornamental  plant. 

PEEN-TO   PEACH. 

B.  F.  G.,  Wilmington,  Delaware.  I  have  applied  to  several  nurseries  for  plants  of 
the  Peen-to  peach,  but  have  not  been  successful.  In  reply  to  my  last  application  I 
was  informed  that  the  variety  would  not  live  in  Delaware,  and  also  that  the  fruit 
was  small  and  not  worth  having. 

This  does  not  conform  with  what  I  have  heard  about  the  fruit  as  grown  in  the  South, 
where  it  is  claimed  to  be  the  earliest  and  best  peach  that  they  can  grow.  What 
is  the  experience  or  knowledge  of  the  Department  on  this  tree  and  fruit  ? 

Answer. — The  Peen-to  peach  will  not  do  well  in  your  climate;  the  winters  are  too 
severe  for  it. 

As  to  the  fruit,  it  is,  when  well  grown,  not  above  the  medium  size,  and  when  fully 
ripened  on  the  tree  is  of  fairly  good  quality  for  so  early  a  fruit,  but  if  gathered  before 
full  maturity  it  has  somewhat  of  a  bitter  taste. 

In  portions  of  Florida,  where  the  common  peach  rarely  bears  fruit,  the  Peen-to  is 
the  earliest  and  best  peach  they  grow,  and  it  will  undoubtedly  be  the  parent  of  a 
class  of  trees  particularly  suited  to  that  climate.  It  is  stated  that  already  seedlings 
of  the  Peen-to  have  been  procured  which  prove  to  excel  the  parent  both  in  size  and 
quality. 

INDIGO. 

H.  S.  B.,  Sanford,  Florida.  I  should  be  much  obliged  if  you  could  give  me  any 
information  as  to  the  planting,  fertilizing,  and  preparation  of  indigo,  and  also  if  it 
would  flourish  in  this  soil  and  climate. 

Answer. — The  indigo  (Tndigofera  tinctoria)  is  a  native  of  Asia,  hut  has  been  culti- 
vated in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Indigo  was  at  one  time  an  article  of  export  from 
South  Carolina  and  other  Southern  States,  but  its  production  in  the  States  has  long 
ceased  to  be  of  commercial  importance. 

The  plant  requires  a  moderately  rich  soil,  the  seeds  being  sown  early  in  spring, 
sometimes  broadcast,  but  preferably  in  shallow  drills  about  16  inches  apart,  so  that 
weeds  can  be  removed  or  kept  down  by  hoeing.  The  plant  will  be  ready  to  cut  in 


109 

about  3  months  after  sowing  the  seeds.  They  are  cut  just  before  coming  into  flower, 
and  if  conditions  of  growth  are  favorable  a  second  crop  may  be  cut  in  about  2 
months  afterwards. 

The  coloring  matter  does  not  exist  as  indigo  in  the  plant,  but  when  the  plant  is 
steeped  in  water  and  subjected  to  certain  processes  the  blue  color  is  educed. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  cut  they  are  thrown  into  vats  of  water,  where  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  until  sufficiently  macerated.  The  liquid  is  then  drawn  into  an- 
other vat,  where  it  is  subjected  to  agitation  by  beating  with  rods  for  several  hours, 
or  until  the  water  changes  from  a  greenish  to  a  deep  purple  color.  It  is  then  allowed 
to  settle.  The  water  gradually  clears  and  the  indigo  sediment  is  found  on  the 
bottom  of  the  vat. 

It  is  then  boiled,  strained  through  bags,  and  otherwise  treated  until  prepared  for 
commerce. 

All  the  processes  require  careful,  skilled  treatment  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Indigo  was  produced  near  St.  Augustine  prior  to  the  year  1700,  and  records 
show  that  it  was  cultivated  in  Virginia  about  1680. 

There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  its  adaptability  to  the  climate  of  southern  Florida, 
provided  the  seed  is  sown  in  deep  rich  soil,  but  it  is  somewhat  doubtful  that  it  wouh 
prove  to  be  a  profitable  crop. 

NAVEL  ORANGES. 

From  Putnam  County,  Florida.  As  there  seems  to  be  an  uncertainty  about  the 
proper  distinction  regarding  navel  oranges,  I  would  be  pleased  to  have  you  inform 
me  whether  or  not  the  Bahia,  Washington  navel,  Riverside  navel,  and  Parsons  navel 
are  all  one  kind.  Also,  would  like  to  know  if  any  of  these  were  ever  sent  to  Florida 
by  your  Department. 

Answer. — Of  the  above  the  only  variety  of  the  navel  orange  sent  out  from  this  De- 
partment was  the  Bahia.  This  variety  was  imported  from  Bahia  some  years  ago, 
and  to  designate  it  from  other  navel  oranges  the  name  of  Bahia  was  attached  to  it. 
Young  plants  of  this  variety  were  distributed  in  California  and  Florida  about  the 
same  time,  but  mostly  in  Florida,  where  there  are  now  large  trees  of  first  distribu- 
tions. However,  the  conditions  of  climate,  probably,in  California  seemed  to  suit  the 
variety  better  than  Florida.  At  all  events,  its  value  there  soon  brought  it  into  no- 
tice, and  as  it  first  fruited  at  a  place  named  Riverside  it  received  that  name,  also 
that  of  Washington,  thus  ignoring  the  name  on  the  label  attached  to  the  plant  when 
received. 

As  to  the  variety  known  as  Parsons  navel,  this  Department  has  no  knowledge  of 
its  origin. 

With  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  Bahia  from  here,  as  between  California  and 
Florida,  many  more  have  been  sent  to  the  latter-named  State. 

NETTLE  FIBER. 

From  South  Carolina.  I  wish  you  would  advise  me  of  any  improvements  or  develop- 
ments that  have  been  made  recently  in  the  preparation  of  nettle  fiber.  Our  country 
is  overrun  with  nettles,  and  it  would  be  a  blessing  if  they  could  be  put  to  some  use. 

Answer. — The  Department  is  not  aware  that  nettle  fiber  enters  into  commerce  to  any 
extent.  Ramie,  one  of  the  best  fiber  plants  of  the  nettle  family,  has  considerable 
commercial  value,  but  the  expense  of  its  preparation  for  market  has,  hitherto  at 
least,  prevented  its  profitable  culture,  although  machinery  for  its  profitable  prepara- 
tion has  lately  been  announced. 

EUCALYPTUS  TREE. 

From  York,  Pennsylvania.  I  have  seen  it  stated  at  various  times  that  Eucalyptus 
globulus  trees  were  being  planted  in  the  public  grounds  in  Washington  on  account  of 
their  supposed  power  to  preyept  malarial  emanations  from  the  soil. 


110 

Desiring  to  plant  a  shade  tree  in  front  of  my  house,  I  desire  to  ascertain  whether 
the  Eucalyptus  is  likely  to  thrive  well  in  this  climate. 

Answer. — The  Eucalyptus  globulus  has  not  been  planted  in  the  puhlic  grounds  at 
Washington. 

The  tree  is  altogether  too  tender  for  this  climate.  It  will  not  withstand  more  than 
5°  or  6°  of  frost,  and  has  been  killed  by  cold  at  Galveston,  Tex.,  and  in  Florida  as  far 
south  as  latitude  29°. 

PERUVIAN  TEA. 

E.  H.,  North  Carolina.  Can  you  furnish  me  with  any  plants  of  the  Peruvian  tea 
cr  mate"  for  experiment  here  ? 

Answer. — The  plant  which  yields  the  leaves  used  as  tea  in  Brazil  and  Peru  is  Ilex 
paraguayensis,  a  large-sized  tree,  which  would  not  grow  in  North  Carolina. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  ignore  the  Chinese  tea-plant,  Camellia  thea,  which  will  grow 
well  in  most  parts  of  North  Carolina,  and  contains  more  theine  than  the  Peruvian 
plant. 

BLACK  PEPPER. 

A.  C.  P.,  Portland,  Oregon.  If  possible  I  should  like  to  be  supplied  with  seeds  of 
the  Black  pepper  tree  or  vine  from  the  most  northern  latitude  where  it  nourishes.  I 
would  try  the  experiment  of  raising  it  in  the  warm  valleys  of  southern  Oregon. 

Answer, — The  Black  pepper  vine,  Piper  nigrum,  is  a  tropical  plant,  therefore  it 
would  be  futile  to  expect  it  to  grow  in  any  part  of  Oregon  ;  it  requires  even  a  warmer 
climate  than  either  the  Pineapple  or  the  Banana,  neither  of  which  can  be  cultivated 
profitably  in  Oregon. 

RAMIE. 

B.,  New  York.    Can  Ramie  be  successfully  grown  in  this  State  ? 

Answer. — Ramie  can  be  grown  in  New  York  State  by  lifting  the  roots  during  the 
fall  and  preserving  them  all  winter,  like  potatoes.  But  for  commercial  purposes  this 
process  would  not  be  profitable,  unless  the  profits  on  the  crop  were  greater  than  they 
are  at  present.  South  of  Maryland  the  plant  occupies  the  ground  like  clover,  and 
once  planted  no  renewal  is  needed  for  many  years. 

MAHWAH  TREE. 

A.  P.,  South  Carolina.  I  send  you  a  slip  from  a  newspaper  strongly  advocating 
the  introduction  of  the  Mahwah  tree  from  Africa  as  a  sugar-producing  plant  of  more 
value  than  any  other  sugar-plant  now  in  cultivation.  Please  send  me  some  seeds  or 
plants  for  trial  here,  or  inform  me  where  they  can  be  procured. 

Answer. — The  Mahwah  tree,  Bassia  latifolia,  is  a  native  of  Bengal  and  other  highly 
tropical  districts  in  the  East  Indies,  and  it  is  far  from  probable  that  it  would  flourish 
anywhere  in  the  United  States,  but  certainly  it  could  not  stand  the  climate  of  South 
Carolina.  The  flowers  of  this  tree  are  sweet  to  the  taste,  and  are  eaten  raw  by  the 
natives  of  Guzerat  and  other  places  where  the  trees  abound.  A  fiery  kind  of  spirits 
is  distilled  from  the  flowers. 

The  sugar  of  these  flowers  is  mainly  uncrystallizable.  Analysis  of  sun-dried  flowers 
yield  56 per  cent  of  sugar  and  15  per  cent  of  water;  further  analysis  showed  that 
sucrose  (cane  sugar)  was  only  present  in  the  proportion  of  2  per  cent  while  glucose 
(Isevulose  and  dextrine)  yielded  52  per  cent.  Hence  it  can  not  possibly  be  substi- 
tuted for  cane  or  beet  sugars.  Of  nitrogenous  matters  the  flowers  contained  2  per 
cent.  The  usual  proportion  of  useful  nitrogenous  food  should  have  one  part  of  flesh 
formers  to  five  saccharine  ;  but  in  Mahwah  flowers  it  was  only  two  to  fifty-five,  hence 
these  have  but  little  of  nutritious  value. 


Ill 

OSAGE  ORANGE. 

L.  B.  C.,  Missouri.  I  write  to  ask  if  you  can  tell  me  of  a  way  to  destroy  the  osage 
orange  hedge  fence.  This  is  becoming  unpopular  among  the  best  farmers  on  account 
of  the  cost  of  trimming,  making  it  hog-proof,  and  its  taking  the  substance  of  the 
ground  for  such  a  wide  space  each  side  of  it.  Cutting  it,  letting  it  dry,  and  then 
burning  will  not  do,  as  it  will  sprout  again  from  the  old  roots. 

Answer. — The  best  method  of  destroying  the  hedge  is  to  cut  the  tops  of  the  plants 
so  that  the  remaining  stock  and  roots  can  l>e  grubbed  out,  and  the  more  effectually 
these  are  removed  the  less  trouble  will  result  with  sue  kers ;  but  when  these  do  ap- 
pear they  should  be  hoed  out  as  other  weeds  are  destroyed.  Plowing  the  ground 
deeply  for  several  feet  on  each  side  of  the  original  hedge  line  will  break  and  bring  to 
the  surface  some  of  the  roots,  every  fragment  of  which  should  be  removed.  It  will 
not  be  practicable  to  get  rid  of  every  piece  of  root  at  once,  but  if  timely  attention  is 
given  to  the  removal  of  such  growths  as  may  appear,  the  whole  will  eventually  be 
eradicated. 

WELL-KIPENBD  WOOD. 

This  is  a  technical  phrase  much  used  by  fruit-growers  to  indicate  a 
favorable  condition  of  fruit-bearing  plants,  and  as  indicating  the  basis 
of  success  for  fruit  production  and  healthy  vitality  of  the  plant.  No 
plant  can  long  remain  in  a  state  of  health  if  placed  under  conditions 
where  its  yearly  growths  do  not  mature,  and  it  can  not  be  too  vividly 
impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  cultivator  of  fruits  that  full  and  com- 
plete maturity  of  the  seasonal  growths  of  his  trees  and  plants  is  the 
foundation  of  success.  Without  it,  so  far  as  fruit  production  is  con- 
cerned, failure  is  inevitable. 

The  amount  of  cold  which  plants  can  endure  without  injury  depends 
greatly  upon  the  degree  of  maturity  of  their  growths.  Too  much  im- 
portance can  not  be  placed  upon  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  what- 
ever tends  to  render  plant  tissue  moist  increases  the  susceptibility  of 
the  plant  to  injury  from  cold,  and  whatever  tends  to  reduce  humidity 
and  hasten  the  conversion  of  fluid  matter  into  woody  fiber  increases  its 
power  of  resisting  cold,  and  it  is  clearly  within  the  province  of  the  cul- 
tivator to  largely  control  this  power  of  resistance  in  plants  so  far  that 
failures  or  successes  will  in  many  cases  depend  upon  his  perception  of 
the  application  of  principles  influencing  vegetable  growth. 

It  would  be  no  easy  task  to  determine  how  much  of  the  disappoint- 
ments and  failures  in  fruit  culture  are  due  to  luxuriant  late  growths  which 
have  been  struck  by  cold,  and  growth  arrested  before  reaching  maturity. 

The  amount  of  cold  that  plants  can  resist  without  being  injured  can 
not  be  definitely  answered,  because  a  plant  will  sometimes  be  destroyed 
by  a  degree  of  cold  that  it  previously  encountered  without  harm.  This 
simply  shows  that  the  resisting  powers  of  plants  are  not  constant,  but 
that  they  are  dependent  upon  the  condition  of  growth  with  reference 
to  its  maturity. 

Future  investigation  will  undoubtedly  determine  that  most  of  the 
so-called  diseases  of  plants  originate  from  injuries  received  from  sudden 
checks  of  growth,  and  it  will  likely  be  found  that  the  results,  although 


112 

ultimately  fatal,  may  linger  for  long  periods  before  final  termination, 
and  observation  has  led  to  the  conviction  that  such  instances  are  by 
no  means  rare. 

It  may  often  be  observed  that  in  an  orchard  or  plantation  of  trees  of 
any  kind  individual  plants  will  suffer  and  show  disease  while  closely 
neighboring  plants  remain  in  perfect  health.  In  such  cases  it  will  be 
found  that  the  injured  plants  are  those  which,  for  some  reason,  are  the 
most  succulent  of  growths,  and  succumb  to  influences  from  which 
those  of  mature  growths  are  exempt,  and  thus  "  the  one  is  taken  and 
the  other  left." 

The  result  of  cold  acting  upon  succulent  shoots  is  well  exemplified  in 
the  case  of  peach  trees.  The  disease  known  as  "  yellows "  has  long 
been  attributed  by  reliable  authorities,  and  this  on  grounds  which  have 
never  been  successfully  controverted,  to  the  freezing  of  immature 
shoots  in  the  fall. 

Downing,  40  years  ago,  in  his  "  Fruits  of  America,"  referring  to 
peaches,  says : 

And  it  is  well  worth  remarking  that  certain  fine  old  sorts,  the  ends  of  the  branches 
of  which  have  a  peculiar  mildewed  appearance,  which  seems  to  check  the  growth 
without  impairing  the  health,  are  rarely  if  ever  attacked  by  the  yellows.  Slow- 
growing  and  moderately  productive  sorts  are  almost  entirely  exempt. 

Again,  on  the  same  subject,  he  states — 

The  most  luxuriant  and  healthy  growing  varieties  appear  most  liable  to  it.  Slow- 
growing  sorts  are  rarely  affected. 

In  Britain  peaches  are  always  grafted  on  plum  stocks,  which  has  a 
somewhat  similar  effect  upon  the  peach  as  that  produced  by  grafting 
the  pear  on  the  quince ;  that  is,  the  growth  is  checked,  and  succulent 
late  summer  shoots  prevented. 

The  following  extract  from  a  late  number  of  an  English  periodical 
shows  how  the  yellows  in  peaches  is  produced  in  that  climate: 

I  never  had  to  deal  with  peach  trees  on  peach  stocks,  but  the  history  of  the  peach 
stock  is  not  favorable  in  some  climates.  The  late  Mr.  Thompson,  of  the  Chiswick 
Gardens,  relates  how  the  trees  on  the  peach  stock  at  Chiswick  ''invariably  became 
affected"  and  were  done  away  with  as  useless.  In  America  the  peaches  are  on  the 
peach  stock,  and  the  trees  perish  wholesale  from  the  same  disease  that  attacked 
them  at  Chiswick,  viz,  the  yellows. 

If  T  could  be  sure  of  a  blazing  sun  and  long  hot  summers  I  would  use  the  freest 
growing  stock  I  could  get,  but  I  am  told  that  peach  stock  makes  gross  roots  which 
produce  equally  gross  shoots  that  can  not  always  be  ripened  here,  even  under  glass, 
and  not  at  all  out  doors,  and  a  foundation  of  ill-ripened  wood  is  the  beginning  of 
all  evils. 

The  following  remarks  are  taken  from  a  Maryland  paper  of  date 
November,  1870 : 

I  am  clearly  of  the  opinion  that  the  great  drawback  to  the  peach  is  that  in  many 
places  it  has  no  chance  to  fully  ripen  its  wood  ;  I  mean  that  the  trees  grow  so  con- 
tinuously, and  sometimes  very  luxuriantly,  until  their  foliage  is  suddenly  destroyed 
by  frost.  There  is  no  gradual  change  of  color  in  the  foliage  during  autumn,  followed 


113 

by  natural  fall  of  leaves  before  cold  weather,  as  we  see  in  most  other  trees,  bat  on 
the  contrary,  the  trees  maintain  their  green  foliage  and  keep  pushing  out  young 
leaves  until  a  severe  frost  occurs  and  completely  checks  growth.  This  sudden  check 
and  its  effects  upon  the  vitality  of  the  plant  produce,  in  my  opinion,  the  disease  called 
yellows. 

It  is  in  the  power  of  the  cultivator,  in  some  cases,  to  modify  the 
conditions  which  encourage  late  growths,  as  well  as  to  lessen  the  evil 
effects  which  result  from  frosted  growths.  It  is  readily  apparent  that 
trees  set  in  constantly  damp  or  very  rich  soil  will  have  their  growing 
season  prolonged  beyond  those  planted  in  dry  or  poor  soils.  It  is  also 
evident  that  in  districts  where  the  season  for  active  growth  is  compar- 
atively short,  the  soil  should  be  well  drained  and  manures  sparingly 
applied,  and  only  in  spring.  In  such  cases  stimulating  culture  should 
not  be  prolonged  through  late  summer,  and  even  should  weeds  appear 
they  should  be  mowed  over  with  a  scythe  rather  than  to  disturb  the  soil 
by  cultivator  or  plow. 

But  something  can  be  done  even  with  plants  that  have  been  injured 
by  the  freezing  of  unripened  growths,  and  that  is  the  immediate  re- 
moval of  the  injured  shoots,  pruning  them  back  to  sound  wood.  If  this 
is  performed  in  time  the  plant  may  escape  further  injury. 

In  some  parts  of  Florida  the  orange  trees  occasionally  suffer  from 
slight  frosts.  During  an  unusually  severe  frost  a  few  years  ago  many 
of  the  young  orange  groves  suffered  quite  severely  from  freezing  of 
succulent  shoots.  Hundreds  of  plants  were  destroyed  and  were  re- 
moved during  the  following  summer,  and  hundreds  of  others  lingered 
on  for  a  time,  making  sickly,  yellow-leaved  shoots,  indicative  of  the 
cause  of  their  unhealthiness.  A  prompt  removal  of  the  injured  shoots 
would  have  saved  most  of  these  trees  from  utter  destruction. 

One  of  the  most  effectual  methods  of  hastening  the  maturity  of  yearly 
shoots  is  that  of  pruning  the  roots,  or  by  restricting  their  growths. 
The  restriction  of  root  growth  is  applicable  to  plants  in  pots  or  tubs. 
Florists  recognize  the  fact  that,  with  many  kinds  of  plants,  the  best 
flowering  results  are  obtained  when  the  pots  in  which  they  are  growing 
become  well  filled  with  roots.  When  this  condition  is  reached  vigorous 
growth  is  checked  and  flower  buds  are  produced  in  profusion.  With 
some  perennial  plants  this  cramped  condition  of  roots  is  allowed  to 
exist  for  years,  the  plants  being  stimulated  during  the  period  of  wood 
extension  by  applications  of  liquid  manures. 

Pruning  the  roots  to  hasten  maturity  of  wood  growth  is  of  long  and 
successful  practice.  In  no  instance  have  we  seen  it  so  marked  as  when 
applied  to  the  roots  of  Asiatic  conifers,  and  also  those  of  our  own 
Pacific  coast.  These  plants  have  a  tendency  to  make  late  growths 
during  the  moist  autumn  weather  of  the  Eastern  States,  and  this 
growth  is  mostly  destroyed  by  early  winter  frosts.  A  marked  instance 
is  recorded  where  an  avenue  of  the  Japan  cedar,  Cryptomeria  Japonica, 
had  each  alternate  tree  root-pruned  in  August,  which  completely 
stopped  their  growth  for  the  season.  The  trees  not  operated  upon 
28581 8 


114 

added  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  to  their  growth,  after  the  root-pruned 
specimens  had  ceased  to  lengthen.  The  result  was  that  the  trees  op- 
erated upon  stood  through  the  winter  unharmed,  while  those  not  root- 
pruned  were  frozen  back  so  severely  that  they  never  recovered,  but 
gradually  died  of  the  yellows. 

^ 


NOTES  ON  OEANGE  CULTURE  AND  THE  PINEAPPLE. 

Recent  visits  to  Florida  in  the  interest  of  the  Department  have  en- 
abled me  to  acquire  some  knowledge  of  the  climate,  soil,  and  produc- 
tions of  that  State  as  far  south  as  latitude  28°.  The  following  desultory 
remarks,  the  result  of  observations  made,  are  offered  for  what  they  may 
afford  in  the  way  of  answering  some  of  the  many  inquiries  constantly 
being  directed  to  this  division  by  prospective  cultivators  and  residents 
of  Florida. 

For  at  least  9  months  of  the  year  the  climate  over  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  State  may  be  considered  as  being  tropical,  so  the  most  of  the 
vegetation  of  warm  countries  will  find  a  congenial  atmosphere  during 
that  period.  Occasionally  this  tropical  season  is  longer  than  that  stated 
above,  especially  in  the  most  southern  parts;  but  there  is  a  liability  to 
a  brief  season  of  low  temperature  about  the  end  of  November  sufficient 
to  injure  tender  vegetation,  although  the  weather  may  afterwards  as- 
sume its  tropical  conditions  for  weeks.  During  the  winter  months  an 
occasional  depression  of  temperature,  running  down  to  or  below  the 
freezing  point,  may  occur  at  any  time  up  to  the  end  of  February  or 
later.  These  fitful  periods  of  low  temperatures  are  very  injurious  to 
early  crops  of  culinary  vegetables,  as  well  as  to  all  plants  which  have 
started  into  growth. 

The  early  winter  frosts  are  also  hurtful  to  plants  which  have  succu- 
lent shoots  not  sufficiently  matured  to  withstand  the  low  temperature. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  on  young  orange  and  lemon  trees  which 
have  been  subjected  to  constant  culture  or  to  recent  applications  of 
fertilizers,  causing  a  stimulation  to  late  growths.  Trees  of  any  age,  if 
so  treated,  will  be  liable  to  injury  from  slight  frost,  but  when  the  shoots 
of  the  previous  season  on  old  trees  are  well  matured  they  are  not  sen- 
sibly hurt  by  frost  severe  enough  to  injure  their  matured  fruits  ;  but 
young  trees  are  more  sensible  in  this  respect,  so  that  the  management 
of  young  orange  groves  requires  a  greater  degree  of  discriminate  care 
and  consideration  than  is  necessary  with  trees  of  deciduous  habits. 

Orange  groves  located  in  the  neighborhood  of  Indian  Eiver  have  long 
been  noted  for  their  superior  productions,  and  packages  of  oranges 
marked  u  Indian  Eiver"  command  a  higher  price  than  those  from  other 
sections  of  the  State.  Inquiries  have  frequently  been  made  with  a  view 
of  ascertaining  the  cause  of  the  reputed  superior  qualities  of  these 
fruits,  but  answers  to  these  inquiries  have  not  been  explicit  or  satis- 
factory. A  recent  visit  in  that  section  of  the  State,  and  a  studied  in- 


115 

spection  of  the  soil,  culture,  and  general  condition  of  orange  trees  in 
places  where  the  products  were  typical  of  the  best  results  of  that  re. 
gion,  resulted  in  the  conviction  that  the  superiority  of  the  fruit  was, 
primarily,  owing  to  the  sheltered  and  shaded  position  of  the  trees. 
The  soil  in  which  they  are  growing  does  not  differ  from  that  in  many 
parts  of  the  State,  although  it  contains  a  larger  portion  of  organic 
matter  than  can  be  found  in  numerous  localities  where  orange  trees  are 
planted,  but  even  when  this  deficiency  is  supplied  on  lauds  openly  ex- 
posed to  sun  and  winds,  the  products  will  not  generally  compare  favor- 
ably with  those  from  sheltered  groves ;  so  that  the  conclusion  seems 
clear  that  the  superior  quality  of  the  fruit  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
trees  producing  it  are  afforded  an  ample  degree  of  shade  and  protec- 
tion. It  may  further  be  presumed  that  in  any  part  of  the  orange  belt 
or  climate  where  the  trees  are  similarly  sheltered  fruits  may  be  pro- 
duced equally  good  in  every  particular. 

In  passing  through  the  country  the  effects  of  shelter,  especially  on 
young  trees,  is  everywhere  apparent.  It  might  truthfully  be  stated 
that  the  best  looking  young  groves  are  those  which  are  best  protected. 

As  the  trees  increase  in  height  and  expanse  they  will,  in  a  certain 
degree,  shelter  each  other,  and  so  far  as  they  shade  the  ground  and 
break  the  force  of  drying  winds  so  far  will  evaporation  of  moisture  be 
reduced ;  but  a  recognition  of  all  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  growth  of 
the  orange  would  tend  to  the  conclusion  that  the  trees  would  be  bene- 
fited by  being  well  sheltered,  if  not  also  partially  shaded,  no  matter 
what  their  age  may  be. 

What  might  be  termed  conclusive  evidence  on  this  point  is  afforded 
by  the  localities  in  which  the  sour  or  bitter  orange  has  become  natural- 
ized. This  plant  asserts  itself  as  an  example  of  the  u  survival  of  the 
fittest "  of  the  Citrus  family  in  this  State,  under  strictly  natural  condi- 
tions of  propagation  and  growth. 

There  are  throughout  parts  of  Florida  extensive  tracts  of  rather  low 
lands,  where  the  palmetto  abounds  and  flourishes,  interspersed  with  a 
variety  of  oaks  and  undergrowths.  Here  also  is  found  the  so-called  wild 
or  sour  orange,  luxuriating  in  and  forming  a  part  of  the  dense  thickets, 
nourished  by  a  soil  rich  in  organic  matter,  and  sometimes  growing  in 
places  where  their  roots  are  covered  with  water  for  weeks  at  a  time. 

Some  of  the  most  valuable  orange  groves  in  the  State  have  been 
formed  by  a  partial  clearing  out  of  these  thickets,  removing  the  tops 
of  the  wild  orange  trees  and  budding  the  plants  with  the  best  varieties 
of  sweet  oranges.  Looking  into  these  seminaturalized  groves  we  ob- 
serve an  indiscriminate  assemblage  of  orange  trees  and  tall  palmettos, 
the  latter  towering  above  the  former,  which  give  evidence  by  the  vivid 
color  of  their  leaves  and  the  brightness  of  their  fruits  that  they  enjoy 
the  shade  and  protection  thus  afforded  them.  The  fruit  from  these  groves 
is  noted  for  fine  appearance  and  quality,  and  if  intermixed  with  "  In- 


116 

dian  Biver"  oranges  the  task  of  separating  them  would  be  difficult  if 
not  impracticable. 

The  comparative  freedom  from  rust  on  the  fruit  produced  in  groves 
where  the  trees  are  afforded  protection  is  worthy  of  special  notice.  It 
is  attributed  to  the  ravages  of  a  minute  insect*  but  I  find  that  many 
persons  are  undecided  as  to  whether  the  insect  is  the  cause  or  only  a 
consequence  of  a  diseased  condition  which  has  been  produced  by  other 
influences. 

If  we  now  direct  our  attention  to  thousands  of  acres  of  young  orange 
groves  which  may  be  found  throughout  the  State  planted  in  sandy  soils 
on  high  pine  lands,  and  contrast  their  condition  and  appearance  with 
those  which  have  been  described,  the  difference  will  be  found  as  strik- 
ing as  it  is  apparent,  even  to  the  casual  observer. 

In  the  preparation  for  planting  an  orange  grove  on  pine  lands  the 
first  process  is  that  of  removing  all  the  forest  trees,  taking  them  up  by 
the  roots,  and  clearing  up  the  laud  so  that  it  can  be  broken  up  with  the 
plow.  After  thorough  preparation  by  plow  and  harrow  the  soil  is  ready 
for  the  orange  trees,  which  are  carefully  set  out.  Without  shade,  shel- 
ter, or  any  kind  of  protection  from  the  scorching  sun  and  arid  breezes, 
the  young  trees  are  subjected  to  great  vicissitudes.  When  rains  are  fre- 
quent vegetation  proceeds  rapidly  j  a  week  or  two  of  dry  weather  inter 
venes,  and  active  growth  receives  a  check  for  a  time  $  the  foliage  of  the 
young  tree  loses  its  vivid  color,  and  this  is  considered  as  indicating  the 
need  of  a  manurial  dressing.  Fertilizers  of  some  kind  are  applied,  rains 
follow,  and  growth  again  proceeds  satisfactorily  so  long  as  sufficient 
moisture  is  present  in  the  light  sandy  soil. 

This  somewhat  erratic  condition  prevails  in  a  more  or  less  decided 
manner  during  the  active  growing  period  of  the  year,  and  may  extend 
into  the  early  winter  with  but  a  slight  lowering  on  the  general  summer 
temperature,  until  a  sudden  depression  is  experienced,  and  the  ther- 
mometer indicates  that  the  freezing  point  is  reached.  The  temperature 
again  rapidly  rises,  and  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  pouring  through 
a  cloudless  sky,  produce  disastrous  effects  upon  the  frost-bitten  tender 
shoots  and  leaves. 

When  young  trees  have  been  subjected  to  such  casualties  it  is  a  diffi- 
cult matter  to  prognosticate  the  extent  of  the  injuries  they  have  re- 
ceived ;  much  depends  upon  the  individual  plant  j  but  in  a  general  way 
those  which  have  shown  the  greatest  luxuriance  will  suffer  most.  Of 
course  injuries  from  frost  depend  upon  its  severity.  Six  to  eight  de- 
grees of  frost  may  prove  fatal,  even  although  the  plants  may  linger 
between  life  and  death  for  a  year  or  two.  If  the  sap  of  the  plant  be- 
contaminated  from  that  of  the  frozen  shoots  or  branches,  an  early  death 
is  quite  certain. 

A  simple  precaution,  and  one  that  may  be  looked  on  as  an  effectual 
preventive  from  further  injury  to  the  frost-bitten  plant  is  to  remove  the 
injured  twigs  as  promptly  as  practicable.  The  longer  this  is  delayed 


117 

X 

the  deeper  seated  the  injury  becomes.  The  diseased  portions  will  ex- 
hibit a  discoloration  in  the  wood,  and  all  such  parts  should  be  removed. 
The  following  extract  from  a  recent  publication  was  communicated 
by  a  well-known  horticulturist  and  successful  orange-grower,  and  is 
worthy  of  the  serious  consideration  of  every  person  contemplating  the 
establishment  of  an  orange  grove  on  forest  lands : 

I  wish  to  say  a  word  about  the  plan  of  deadening  the  timber  instead  of  making  a 
naked  clearing,  which  is  often  referred  to  as  a  "shiftless  cracker  way."  I  came  to 
Florida  many  years  ago  with  these  same  prejudices  very  strong  against  the  "shift- 
less cracker"  deadening.  I  cleared  off  every  tree  and  stump  and  planted  to  oranges 
and  lemons  25  acres  of  heavy  pine  timber.  I  think  I  have  learned  something  by 
experience,  and  I  can  now  see  the  "  crackers  "  were  right  and  I  was  wrong. 

A  deadening  is  vastly  superior  to  a  naked  clearing  in  economy  and  favorable  con- 
ditions for  the  growth  and  health  of  the  newly  set  grove. 

As  soon  as  the  timber  is  deadened  it  ceases  to  make  damaging  drafts  on  the  soil, 
and  it  makes  a  semi  shade  on  the  ground  very  grateful  to  the  young  tree  in  its  new 
quarters.  It  also  breaks  the  sweep  of  the  winds  and  thus  decreases  the  evaporation 
from  the  tree  and  the  soil  in  which  it  is  placed.  After  awhile  the  leaves  begin  to 
come  down  and  cover  the  ground  with  a  thin  mulch,  retaining  moisture  and  protect- 
ing the  soil  from  the  blazing  rays  of  the  sun.  A  year  or  more  later  the  smaller  twigs 
and  fragments  of  bark  are  added  to  the  leaves,  and  when  the  ground  is  plowed  a 
most  valuable  dressing  of  vegetable  matter  is  incorporated  in  a  soil  whose  greatest 
want  is  humus.  At  the  end  of  three  years  your  grove  is  well  established  and  the 
decaying  timber  begins  to  be  dangerous.  Then  chop  it  down.  All  the  branches  and 
much  of  the  bark  will  break  into  fragments  so  small  the  plow  will  dispose  of  them. 
Cut  up  the  bodies  in  some  10-feet  lengths  and  pile  them  in  the  checks  midway 
between  the  rows.  In  3  years  more  the  sap  wood  and  a  large  part  of  the  heart  will 
be  thoroughly  rotted  and  can  be  spread  and  plowed  in  like  a  manure  pile.  Those 
hearts  that  remain  sound  are  valuable  for  posts,  rails,  and  fuel.  The  cost  of  clearing 
a  lot  after  it  has  been  dead  3  years  is  about  two-fifths  of  the  cost  of  clearing  green  tim- 
ber. In  fact,  the  interest  for  3  years  on  the  cost  of  clearing  green  timber  will  nearly 
clear  the  deadening. 

But,  after  all,  the  great  gain  is  in  the  superior  vigor  of  the  young  grove  the  first 
few  years  and  the  great  improvement  to  the  soil  by  the  shade  and  add^d  humus. 

There  are  many  hundreds  of  acres  of  young  orange  groves  which 
would  be  greatly  assisted  by  the  introduction  among  them  of  some  kind 
of  tree  for  shelter.  Additional  trees  would  involve  additional  expenses 
for  manure ;  the  trees  should  therefore  be  of  such  kinds  as  would  af- 
ford some  remunerative  crop.  Peach  trees  and  Japan  persimmon  might 
be  tried,  although  an  evergreen  tree  would  be  more  valuable.  The  Lo- 
quat,  known  in  many  localities  as  Japan  plum,  having  heavy  foliage, 
would  afford  effective  protection ;  it  is  also  much  hardier  than  the 
orange.  Perhaps  the  olive  tree  might  be  profitably  employed.  Of 
course  any  tree  used  for  this  purpose  would  be  removed  when  their 
presence  was  no  longer  required. 

PLANTING  A  GEOVE. 

There  are  numerous  methods  in  vogue  for  establishing  an  orange 
grove.  That  most  widely  adopted,  according  to  my  observation,  is  to 
set  out  trees  three  or  four  years  from  the  seed. 


118 

Those  are  produced  from  seeds  which  have  been  saved  from  good 
kinds,  so  that,  in  the  event  of  the  trees  not  being  budded,  they  will 
produce  fruit  of  at  least  average  merit.  It  is  well  ascertained  that  the 
orange  reproduces  its  kind  more  closely  than  does  any  other  class  of 
long  cultivated  fruits ;  but  there  is  still  much  difference  in  the  quali- 
ties of  oranges  from  groves  where  the  trees  have  not  been  budded,  a 
fact  which  purchasers  of  these  fruits  soon  discover.  It  is  questionable 
if  this  method  is  the  best  that  can  be  followed  for  either  of  the  two 
purposes  in  view;  that  is,  whether  these  trees  are  the  best  for  budding, 
and,  again,  whether  it  is  advisable  to  trust  to  seedling  trees  for  the 
best  marketable  products. 

Trees  of  the  ages  mentioned  are  too  old  to  be  set  out  for  budding. 
After  being  s^t  out  they  are  usually  allowed  to  establish  themselves  for 
some  time  before  being  budded.  By  that  time  they  have  made  a  well- 
developed  top  of  small  branches,  all  in  a  healthy  and  vigorous  condition. 

The  trees  are  budded  in  their  main  stems  at  points  varying  in  their 
distances  from  the  ground,  and  seemingly  as  found  most  convenient  to 
the  operator,  and  after  the  buds  are  well  started  the  entire  top  of  the 
stock  is  removed.  This  is  a  severe  check  to  root  extension.  The  plant 
will  make  efforts  to  restore  the  former  balance  which  existed  between 
the  roots  and  the  leaves  by  throwing  out  young  shoots  or  suckers,  which, 
right  or  wrong,  are  promptly  removed,  thus  throwing  the  whole  force  of 
the  plant  into  the  growth  of  one  shoot,  which  progresses  rapidly,  pro- 
ducing large  leaves  and  a  bulky  succulent  shoot;  a  condition  which 
maintains  until  its  growth  is  suddenly  arrested  by  cold  nights,  and  if 
frosts  occur  the  results  are  disastrous. 

There  are  thousands  of  orange  trees  in  Florida,  to  my  personal  knowl- 
edge, which  are  in  stunted,  scrubby  condition  from  causes  such  as  those 
outlined  above,  and  which  should,  as  a  matter  of  pure  economy,  be  re- 
moved at  once,  and  their  places  supplied  by  a  better  class  of  plants. 

The  best  class  of  trees  are  those  which  are  produced  by  budding 
healthy  stocks  not  more  than  two  years  from  seed,  and  when  the  buds 
have  made  a  growth  in  the  nursery  the  trees  will  be  in  good  condition 
for  permanent  planting.  In  some  countries  the  orange  is  mainly  propa- 
gated by  grafting;  in  Florida  it  may  be  said  that  budding  is  the  only 
method  practiced. 

With  regard  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  sweet  and  the  sour  orange 
as  stocks  opinions  are  varied.  The  sour  stock  is  regarded  as  being 
more  hardy  under  low  temperature,  and  as  withstanding  greater  ex- 
tremes in  respect  to  wetness  or  dryness  of  soil.  The  opinion  which  is 
sometimes  mooted,  that  the  sour  stock  impairs  the  sweet  flavor  of  the 
fruit,  does  not  seem  to  be  of  much  importance,  since  it  is  well  known 
that  some  of  the  best  fruits  are  produced  on  these  stocks. 

Some  growers  expressed  an  indifference  as  to  the  kinds  of  stock  they 
used  for  budding  upon,  but  the  preponderance  of  answers  in  reply  to 
interrogatories  on  this  point  was  in  favor  of  the  sour  stock. 


119 

Northern  orchardists  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  purchase  their 
young  fruit  trees  from  reliable  nurserymen  whose  business  it  is  to  propa- 
gate and  supply  such  trees,  healthy  as  to  vitality  and  authentic  as  to 
name  and  character.  Promoters  of  orange  groves  will  ultimately  learn 
that  it  will  prove  most  economical  and  in  every  way  to  their  advantage 
to  procure  their  young  trees  from  similar  sources. 

As  to  trusting  to  seedling  trees  for  the  best  marketable  products, 
it  is  found  that  opinions  do  not  vary  so  much  on  this  point  as  they  did 
some  years  ago.  Consumers  are  learning  that  there  are  differences  in 
oranges  as  there  are  in  apples,  pears,  and  other  fruits,  and  shipments 
of  choice  named  kinds  will  take  precedence  over  those  which  contain 
fruits  of  various  merits  as  gathered  indiscriminately  from  groves  of 
seedling  trees  and  whose  uniformity  can  not  be  guarantied. 

THE   PINEAPPLE. 

The  pineapple  can  not  be  considered  as  a  perfectly  safe  crop  in  Florida 
north  of  the  twenty-eighth  degree  of  latitude.  Its  cultivation  is  some- 
times attempted  a  full  degree  north  of  this  limit  with  winter  protection, 
and  unless  the  thermometer  sinks  below  30°  they  will  pass  through  the 
winter  unhurt.  Being  allowed  ample  space  and  freely  manured,  the 
plants  attain  large  size  and  produce  fruits  from  4  to  9  pounds  in  weight 
varying  according  to  the  variety. 

Pineapples  are  commonly  protected  by  erecting  a  horizontal  platform 
of  small  poles  or  laths,  supported  by  posts,  and  elevated  high  enough 
so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  upward  growth  of  the  plants.  This  plat- 
form is  closely  covered  with  palm  leaves  during  the  winter,  and  forms 
a  good  protection  againt  light  frosts.  A  slight  shade  is  always  allowed 
during  summer.  This,  it  is  claimed,  enhances  the  value  of  the  fruit, 
causing  it  to  be  more  tender  and  juicy  than  it  would  be  if  exposed  to 
the  full  force  of  the  sun  throughout  the  summer.  The  plants  are  usually 
grown  in  beds  8  or  10  feet  in  width ;  the  covering  is  thus  easily  applied. 

North  of  the  latitude  mentioned  pineapple  production  in  the  open 
field  does  not  appear  promising,  unless  in  exceptionally  favored  places 
and  under  the  best  conditions  of  culture.  In  the  plantations  visited, 
on  an  island  near  the  southern  junction  of  the  Indian  and  Banana  Eiv- 
ers,  the  plants  appear  to  be  set  about  18  inches  apart,  in  masses,  thus 
preventing  effective  cultivation.  The  brown  and  bleached  aspect  of  the 
leaves  indicate  injury  from  cold  weather.  The  fruits  are  mostly  small, 
and  having  to  enter  markets  in  competition  with  fruits  of  the  same 
kind  imported  from  the  West  Indies,  which  sometimes  sell  at  prices 
not  much  above  those  given  for  the  best  oranges,  the  profits  are  not 
encouraging. 

When  plants  are  allowed  space  for  full  development,  and  due  atten- 
tion given  to  the  slight  protection  necessary  during  the  winter,  fruits 
weighing  from  6  to  10  pounds  are  produced,  and  these  command 
remunerative  prices. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Apple  trees  for  South  Carolina 95 

Avenues,  trees  for 29 

Bahia  orange,  pollen  of 98 

Bean,  Tonka  or  snuff,  culture  of. . . 104 

Belts  or  marginal  plantations 21 

Bending  of  branches  to  promote  fruiting 79 

Boundaries,  trees  and  shruhs  for 21 

Brazil  nut,  habitat  of 97 

Buildings,  arranging  details  of 13 

selecting  sites  for 11,12 

Camphor,  method  of  obtaining 98 

Canary  seed,  culture  of 99 

Carriage  turns 27 

Chicle  gum,  sources  of 97 

Citron,  preparation  of 90 

Cochineal  industry 94 

Coffee,  cultivation  of 95 

plants,  distribution  of „.„ 101 

tree,  Kentucky 93 

Cropping,  rotation  in 75 

Cultivation  of  crops 44 

Currant,  Zante  variety  of 104 

Cuttings  for  grape  propagation 71, 77 

Drainage  of  lands -.37,46,94 

Driveways,  construction  of 16 

laying  out  of 15 

Dwarfing  to  promote  fruitfulness 79 

Dwellings,  selecting  sites  for 11, 12 

Entrances  to  grounds 27 

Eucalyptus  trees,  tenderness  of 109 

Evergreens  for  winter  scenery 33 

transplanting  of 43 

Fences 23 

Fig-culture 89 

Flowerpots , 83 

Forest  trees  from  seeds  and  plants 38 

Fruit  trees,  necessity  of  ripened  wood Ill 

Fruiting,  expedients  to  promote 79 

Gardening,  antiquity  of 

Gateways 27 

Ginseng  culture 106 

Grain,  varieties  from  India 107 

Grape  rot,  remedies  for 102 

Grapes,  foreign,  in  glass  structures 67 

mildew  of 63,68 

121 


122 

Page. 

Grapes,  native,  propagation  of 66 

varieties  of 60 

propagation  by  cuttings 71,77 

thrips  of 70 

Graperies,  inside  borders  for. 70 

Grapevines,  pruning  of 103 

Greenhouses,  glazing  roofs  of 87 

night  temperature  in 83 

Grounds,  arranging  details  of 13 

location  of 11,12 

Hardiness  of  fruit  trees,  sources  of Ill 

Hedges,  desirability  of 23 

management  of 44 

Horse  chestnuts,  utili zation  of 107 

India,  varieties  of  grain  from 107 

India-rubber  plants 90 

Indigo,  production  of 108 

Lakes,  artificial , , 26 

plants  for , 86 

Landscape  gardening 7 

styles  of 9 

Lawns,  formation  and  care  of 1 H,  40, 96 

grasses  for 19, 41 

Le  Conte  pear  in  Florida 95 

Lemon  trees,  flowering  of :..  108 

Licorice,  culture  of 103 

Lime  wash  for  trees 105 

Lotus  plant,  fruit  of 95 

Mahogany  tree,  so-called 93 

Mahwah  tree,  as  a  source  of  sugar 110 

Manure,  liquid,  used  in  pot  culture 82 

Mildew  of  grapes 63 

Mulching 47 

Mustard,  culture  of 102 

Navel  oranges,  varieties  of 109 

Nettles,  utilization  of 109 

Opium,  method  of  production 98 

Orange,  Bahia,  pollen  of 98 

culture,  notes  on 114 

groves,  planting  of 117 

trees,  flowering  of 108 

Oranges,  navel  varieties  of 109 

Orchards,  management  of 50 

planting  of 49 

situations  for 49 

Osage  orange,  method  of  destroying Ill 

Outbuildings,  arrangement  of  details  oi' 14 

Peach,  Peen-to  variety  of 108 

Pear  blight 60,101 

culture 53 

orchards,  culture  of 56 

mulching  of 56 

planting  of - 55 

pruning  of 57 

Bites  and  shelter  of 54 


123 

Page. 

Pear  orchards,  soils  suited  for 54 

stocks,  influence  on  fruit 59 

trees,  distance  apart  for  setting 60 

Peeu-to  peach,  hardiness  of 108 

Pepper,  black,  habitat  of 110 

Peruvian  tea,  habitat  of 110 

Pineapple  culture,  notes  on 114, 119 

Plants,  expedients  to  promote  fruiting  of 79 

for  lakes  and  ponds 86 

in  pots,  watering  of 85 

Ponds,  artificial  . 26 

plants  for 86 

Poppy  culture  for  opium *.  98 

Pot  culture,  liquid  manure  for 82 

use  of  water  in 85 

Pruning,  notes  on 51 

of  grape  vines - 103 

pear  trees 57 

roots  to  promote  fruiting 79 

Ramie,  culture  of 110 

Raspberries,  culture  of I. . 88 

Renovation  of  land 94 

Rhubarb,  medicinal. 105 

Ringing  of  branches  to  promote  fruitfulness 80 

Roadbed,  construction  of 17 

Roads,  trees  for 29 

Roadways,  construction  of 16 

laying  out  of 15 

Rockeries. ,. 24 

Root-pruning,  for  maturity  of  wood  growth 113 

to  promote  fruitfulness 79 

Roots,  limiting  growth  to  promote  fru iting 80 

Rotation  in  cropping 75 

Seeds  of  forest  trees,  planting  of 38 

saving  of 74 

sowing  of 73 

Shrubs  for  vicinity  of  buildings 30 

grouping  and  massing  of 32 

Sites  for  buildings  and  grounds 11,12 

Soil,  mechanical  preparation  of 46 

Stables,  arrangement  of  details  of 14 

Stocks,  pear,  influence  on  frui fc 59 

Subsoiling 47 

Thrips  of  grapes 70 

Tonka  bean,  culture  of 104 

Tree  seeds,  planting  of -. 38 

Trees,  arrangement  for  various  effects 33 

for  roads  and  avenues 29 

vicinity  of  buildings 30 

grouping  and  massing  of 32 

spring  and  fall  planting  of 42 

time  for  planting  in  Virginia 100 

varieties  for  boundaries 22 

Trenching 47 

Vanilla  plants,  culture  of 89 


124 


Walks,  construction  of 

laying  out  of 

Water,  importance  of  supply  in  plant-culture 

plants 

use  in  the  ornamentation  of  grounds 

Watering  of  plants  in  pots 

Whitewashing  of  fruit  trees 105 

Wood  growth,  hastening  maturity  of 113 

Zante  currant 104 


Page. 
16 
15 
80 
86 
26 
85 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  VEGETABLE  PATHOLOGY. 

BULLETIN  No.  1. 
ADDITIONAL  EVIDENCE 

ON  THE 

COMMUNICABILITY  OF  PEACH  YELLOWS 

AND 

PEACH    ROSETTE. 

BY 


ERWIN    F.    SMITH,   So.  D., 

SPECIAL    AGENT.       ' 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1891. 


NOTE. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Section  of  Vegetable  Pathology  of  the  Bo- 
tanical Division  has  recently  been  made  a  separate  Division  by  act  of 
Congress,  it  has  been  thought  best  to  begin  a  new  series  of  publications 
of  which  this  is  Bulletin  No.  1. 

Below  is  given  a  full  list  of  publications  of  the  Section  and  Divi- 
sion to  date.  Frequent  requests  are  received  for  bulletins  which  are 
out  of  print.  Those  still  on  hand  for  distribution  are  indicated  by  an 
asterisk  (*).  It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  series  Nos.  1,  3,  4,  and  6  are 
missing.  These  represent  bulletins  of  the  Botanical  Division. 

1.  Bulletin  No.  2.  Fungous  Diseases  of  the  Grape.     1886,  pp.  136,  pi.  7. 

2.  Bulletin  No.  5.  Report  on  the  Experiments  made  in  1887  in  the  Treatment  of 

Downy  Mildew  and  Black  Rot  of  the  Grape.     1888,  pp.  113. 

3.  Bulletin  No.  7.  Black  Rot.     1888,  pp.  29,  pi.  1. 

4.  Bulletin  No.  8.  A  Record  of  Some  of  the  Work  of  the  Division.     1889,  pp.  69. 

5.  Bulletin  No.  9.  Peach  Yellows.     1888,  pp.  254,  pi.  36. 

6.  Bulletin  No.  10.  Report  on  the  Experiments  made  in  1888  in  the  Treatment  of 

Downy  Mildew  and  Black  Rot  of  the  Grape,  pp.  61. 

7.  Bulletin  No.  11.*  Report  on  the  Experiments  made  in  1889  in  the  Treatment  of 

Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants.     1890,  pp.  119. 

8.  Journal  of  Mycology,  vol.  5,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4.     1889,  pp.  249,  pi.  14. 

9.  Journal  of  Mycology,  vol.  6,  Nos.  1,  2,*  3,*  and  4\    1890-91,  pp.  207,  pi.  18. 

10.  Circular  No.  1.  Treatment  of  Downy  Mildew  and  Black  Rot  of  the  Grape.     1885, 

pp.  3. 

11.  Circular  No.  2.  Grape  Vine  Mildew  and  Black  Rot.     1885,  pp.  3. 

12.  Circular  No.  3.  Treatment  of  Grape  Rot  and  Mildew.     1886,  pp.  2. 

13.  Circular  No.  4.  Treatment  of  the  Potato  for  Blight  and  Rot.     1886,  pp.  3. 

14.  Circular  No.  5.  Fungicides  or  Remedies  for  Plant  Diseases.     1888,  pp.  10. 

15.  Circular  No.  6.*  Treatment  of  Black  Rot  of  the  Grape.     1888,  pp.  3. 

16.  Circular  No.  7.*  Grape  Vine  Diseases.     1889,  pp.  4. 

17.  Circular  No.  8.*  Experiments  in  the  Treatment  of  Pear  Leaf  Blight  and  Apple 

Powdery  Mildew,  pp.  11. 
18  Circular  No.  9.  Root  Rot  of  Cotton.     1889,  pp.  4. 

19.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  4.*  Fungous  Diseases  of  the  Grape  and  their  Treatment. 

1891,  pp.  12. 

20.  Circular  No.    10.*  Treatment  of  Nursery  Stock  for  Leaf   Blight  and   Powdery 

Mildew.     1891,  pp.  8, 

3 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 7 

Letter  of  submittal 9 

PART  I.— PEACH  YELLOWS. 
I. — Introductory  : 

(1)  Destructive  nature  of  yellows 11 

(2)  Characteristics  of  the  disease 12 

II. — Inoculations : 

Experiment  1.  The  Barnard  trees 16 

Experiment  2.  The  Shallcross  trees -18 

Experiment  3.  The  Nicholson  trees 21 

Experiment  4.  The  Barnard  trees 21 

Experiment  5.  The  Department  trees 22 

III. — Excisions  : 

A.— Orchard  of  William  Brothers,  Dover,  Delaware 24 

B. — Orchard  of  James  W.  Green,  Magnolia,  Delaware 25 

C.— Orchard  of  George  Gildersleve, 'Rising  Sun,  Delaware 27 

D.— Orchard  of  John  A.  Nicholson,  Leipsic,  Delaware 2? 

E.— Old  orchard  of  George  Davis,  Still  Pond,  Maryland 28 

F.— Young  orchard  of  George  Davis,  Still  Pond,  Maryland 29 

G.— Orchard  of  F.  H.  Harper,  Still  Pond,  Maryland 29 

IV. — Observations  and  experiments  bearing  011  immunity  : 

(1)  Are  trees  from  healthy  localities  exempt  ? 38 

(2)  The  Kerr  trees  (peach  on  plum) 38 

(a)  Plantation  in  Mr.  Greene's  orchard 40 

(&)  Plantation  in  Mr.  Harper's  orchard  40 

fc)  Plantation  in  Dr.  Maxwell's  orchard 41 

(3)  Stones  from  Persia 42 

(4)  Yellows  in  old  trees 42 

V. — Conclusions  : 

Facts  established 43 

Hypotheses  rendered  probable 44 

Inquiries  suggested 45 

PART  II. — PEACH  ROSETTE. 
I. — Introductory  : 

(1)  Plants  attacked 45 

(2)  Characteristics  of  the  disease 45 

(3)  First  appearance  and  present  distribution 48 

II.— Inoculations : 

Experiment  1.  The  Husted  trees , 49 

Experiment  2.  The  Husted  trees  (peach  on  plum) 52 

III. — Conclusions 54 

Explanation  of  plates. 55 

Index 59 

5 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


SIR:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  the  investi- 
gations and  experiments  made  the  past  three  years  by  Dr.  Erwin  F. 
Smith,  under  the  direction  of  this  Division,  with  a  view  of  obtaining 
evidence  as  to  the  communicability  of  peach  yellows.  There  is  no 
longer  any  doubt  as  to  the  contagious  nature  of  this  disease,  and  it 
now  remains  as  a  part  of  this  line  of  work  to  determine  definitely  its 
period  of  incubation,  methods  of  spreading  other  than  by  budding,  and 
the  nature  of  the  contagium.  Investigations  bearing  on  these  points, 
as  well  as  exceedingly  extended  and  laborious  ones  with  fertilizers,  are 
now,  and  have  been  for  some  time,  under  way. 
Respectfully, 

B.  T.  GALLOWAY, 

Chief  of  Division. 
Hon.  J.  M.  EUSK, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


SIR  :  In  accordance  with  your  request  I  submit  herewith  a  report  on 
the  evidence  now  at  hand  respecting  the  communicability  of  peach 
yellows. 

Although  some  of  the  experiments  described  in  the  following  pages 
have  not  been  completed,  it  has  been  thought  best  to  report  upon 
them  all  at  this  time,  so  that  peach-growers,  and  more  especially  scien- 
tific workers,  may  know  not  only  just  what  has  been  done,  but  also 
what  is  now  under  way.  To  make  the  report  complete  the  beginnings 
of  certain  experiments  from  the  first  bulletin  on  yellows  have  been 
repeated.  A  brief  account  of  the  disease,  for  the  sake  of  those  into 
whose  hands  the  former  report  did  not  fall  and  also  for  a  clearer 
understanding  of  what  follows,  has  also  been  prefixed. 

The  histological  and  bacteriological  part  of  this  inquiry  is  as  yet 
incomplete,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  omitted  entirely.  In  accordance 
with  your  instructions  no  report  on  the  effect  of  fertilizers  will  be  made 
until  the  results  of  a  third  year's  work  can  be  included. 

A  peach  disease  prevalent  in  Georgia  and  Kansas  has  also  received 
considerable  attention.  This  was  formerly  confused  with  yellows,  but 
is  now  believed  to  be  distinct  and  is  so  described.  It  is  a  disease  of 
the  same  peculiar  type  as  yellows  and  may  be  considered  very  properly 
in  connection  with  the  latter.  The  inoculations  herein  described  demon- 
strate for  the  first  time  its  dangerous,  contagious  nature,  and  point  to 
prompt  destruction  as  the  best  method  of  dealing  with  affected  trees. 

In  conclusion,  thanks  are  due  to  many  peach-growers  who  have  fur- 
thered my  inquiries,  and  very  especially  to  the  men  whose  names  are 
mentioned  in  the  body  of  this  report  and  whose  warm  interest  in 
in  the  advancement  of  horticulture  has  made  them  willing,  even  at  a 
personal  sacrifice,  to  place  their  orchards  and  nurseries  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Department  for  experimental  purposes.  Without  this  cordial 
cooperation  much  of  my  labor  would  necessarily  have  been  fruitless. 
Kespectfully, 

ERWIN  F.  SMITH, 

Special  Agent. 

B.  T.  GALLOWAY, 

Chief  of  Division. 

9 


ADDITIONAL  EVIDENCE  ON  THE  COMMIJNICABILITY  OF  PEACH 
YELLOWS  AND  PEACH  ROSETTE. 


By  ERWIN  F.  SMITH. 
PART  I.— PEACH  YELLOWS. 


I.— INTRODUCTORY. 

(1)  Destructive  nature  of  yellows. — Peach  yellows  is  a  perplexing  and 
destructive  disease.  Oil  all  bands  it  is  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  most 
serious  with  which  American  fruit-growers  have  to  contend.  Form- 
erly this  disease  was  confined  to  a  small  district  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
but  during  the  last  twenty  years  it  has  invaded  distant  regions  hitherto 
free,  and  has  entirely  ruined  the  peach  industry  over  very  considerable 
areas.  Within  ten  years  the  disease  has  taken  a  fresh  and  very  strong 
hold  upon  orchards  in  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  region,  the  north 
portion  of  the  peninsula,  and  has  destroyed  thousands  and  thousands 
of  trees,  rendering  a  great  industry  unprofitable  or  precarious.  It 
seems  to  be  native  to  the  eastern  United  States,  having,  so  far  as  we 
know,  not  been  reported  from  California.  Diligent  inquiry  also  has 
thus  far  failed  to  bring  to  light  any  notice  of  its  occurrence  in  Europe 
or  other  parts  of  the  globe. 

The  last  negative  evidence  is  from  Mr.  Newton  B.  Pierce,  of  the  Di- 
vision of  Vegetable  Pathology.  From  May  to  October,  1890,  he  was  in 
Mediterranean  countries  investigating  vine  diseases.  Mr.  Pierce  trav- 
eled extensively  in  France,  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Algeria,  and  looked  care- 
fully for  this  disease.  He  examined  peach  trees  in  a  great  many  local- 
ities, and  observed  the  fruit  in  the  principal  markets,  but  failed  to  find 
any  traces  of  yellows.  Inquiries  of  many  persons  devoted  to  the  scien- 
tific study  of  agriculture  and  horticulture  also  proved  fruitless.  They 
had  not  seen  or  heard  of  anything  resembling  this  disease. 

The  distribution  of  the  disease  and  the  losses  occasioned  thereby 
were  set  forth  somewhat  fully  in  my  first  bulletin  and  do  not  concern 
us  at  this  time.  It  is  proper  to  state,  however,  that  the  losses  continue 
in  the  infected  districts;  that  the  disease  has  appeared  in  new  localities ; 
and  that  regions  now  healthy  are  also  threatened.  The  yellows  is 
certainly  as  far  south  as  southern  Virginia  and  probably  as  far  west  as 

11 


12  PEACH   YELLOWS. 

Arkansas  and  northeastern  Texas.  Peach-growers  are  earnestly  ad- 
vised to  stamp  out  the  disease  upon  its  first  appearance,  and  are  warned 
against  the  importation  of  trees  from  infected  districts.  These  remarks 
apply  with  especial  force  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  this  connection  it 
is  well  to  remember  that  the  apricot  and  almond  are  also  subject  to  yel- 
lows. It  would  be  much  safer  for  the  Californians  to  grow  their  own 
peach  trees  than  to  introduce  any  from  the  eastern  United  States.  If 
trees  are  imported  it  should  be  known  beyond  question  that  they 
are  from  regions  where  this  disease  does  not  occur.  The  mere  fact 
that  the  nursery  stock  is  healthy  at  the  date  of  shipment  is  not  a 
sufficient  guaranty  that  it  will  continue  so. 

(2)  Characteristics  of  the  disease. — The  primary  and  peculiar  symp- 
toms of  peach  yellows  are  only  two:  (1)  The  red  spotting  and  abnor- 
mally early  maturity  of  the  fruit;  and  (2)  the  premature  germination  of 
ordinary  winter  buds,  or  of  obscure  buds  buried  in  the  bark  of  the  trunk 
and  limbs  or  formed  in  the  cambium.  All  other  symptoms  result  from 
these,  or  are  only  the  common  indications  of  disease  and  decay  in  plants. 

Plate  I  represents  two  peaches,  natural  size,  one  healthy  and  the  other 
diseased.  They  are  of  one  variety  and  were  gathered  the  same  day. 
They  were  picked  from  neighboring  trees,  but  might  have  come  from 
the  same  tree,  since  in  the  first  stages  of  yellows  both  sorts  are  usually 
found  upon  the  same  tree.  The  unspotted  peach  (Fig.  1)  was  hard, 
green,  and  normal  in  all  respects.  It  would  not  have  ripened  under  two 
weeks.  When  ripe  its  skin  would  have  been  creamy  white  with  a  blush 
on  one  cheek,  composed  of  very  minute  and  nearly  uniform  crimson  puuc- 
tations.  Its  flesh  would  have  been  melting  and  juicy,  slightly  acid,  aro- 
matic, and  delicious.  The  color  of  the  flesh  would  have  been  uniformly 
white,  except  for  a  narrow  zone  of  crimson  immediately  surrounding  the 
stone.  The  diseased  peach  (Fig.  2)  was  fully  ripe.  Its  size  was  normal; 
its  color,  abnormal.  The  skin  was  beautifully  mottled  and  blotched  with 
crimson,  giving  an  appearance  quite  unlike  that  of  healthy  fruit.  Many 
of  these  spots  were  large  enough  and  sufficiently  unlike  the  rest  of  the 
skin  to  admit  of  being  easily  photographed.  The  flesh  was  also  copi- 
ously streaked  and  spotted  with  crimson.  On  tangential  section  these 
brightly  colored  portions  were  usually  oval  or  roundish ;  on  radial  sec- 
tion they  appeared  more  often  in  the  form  of  streaks  or  elongated  spots. 
There  was  also  more  than  the  usual  amount  of  color  around  the  stone. 
The  flavor  of  the  peach  was  inferior.  This  diseased  peach  was  only  one 
out  of  thousands  occurring  that  year  in  the  infected  districts.  High- 
colored,  premature  fruits  are  one  of  the  conspicuous  symptoms  of  the 
disease,  and  are  easily  distinguishable  even  from  a  car  window.  Iti 
July,  1891,  I  saw  hundreds  of  bushels  of  this  worthless  fruit  in  upper 
Maryland  and  Delaware,  and  the  entire  loss  thereby  in  1891  certainly 
exceeded  half  a  million  dollars. 

The  amount  of  color  appears  to  depend  somewhat  upon  variety. 
Sometimes  there  is  comparatively  little  crimson  spotting,  and  again, 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    DISEASE.  13 

it  is  a  very  marked  feature,  the  skin  being  almost  purple  and  the  flesh 
of  the  deepest  crimson,  even  in  pure  white  varieties.  In  an  experience 
covering  four  years  and  including  a  great  many  thousand  trees  dis- 
eased by  yellows,  I  have  never  known  but  one  in  which  there  was 
entire  absence  of  red  spotting  in  the  fruit.  This  tree  bore  premature, 
insipid  peaches  and  the  characteristic  shoots.  The  time  of  ripen- 
ing also  varies  within  wide  limits.  I  have  known  such  peaches  to  ripen 
forty  days  in  advance  of  the  proper  time,  and  also  to  ripen  with  the 
healthy  fruit  or  only  a  few  days  in  advance.  Generally  they  ripen  two 
or  three  weeks  in  advance  and  are  gone  when  the  healthy  fruit  matures. 
In  size  the  prematured  fruit  is  usually  normal  the  first  season,  and 
sometimes  even  noticeably  large  and  showy.  If  any  is  produced  the 
second  year  it  is  commonly  small  and  inferior.  The  taste  varies  as 
much  as  the  color,  running  from  tolerably  good  to  mawkish  or  bitter. 
Such  fruits  are  generally  insipid,  even  when  of  good  size  and  color, 
and  their  sale  not  only  defrauds  the  consumer  but  also  reacts  upon  the 
grower,  seriously  impairing  the  subsequent  demand  for  healthy  fruit. 

In  many  cases  the  red-spotted,  prematurely-ripened  fruits  are  the  first 
indications  of  disease,  or  at  least  the  first  symptoms  striking  enough  to 
attract  general  attention.  They  are  very  often  borne  exclusively  upon 
one  or  two  limbs  of  otherwise  healthy-looking  trees.  These  limbs  are 
not  different  in  appearance  from  the  rest  of  the  tree.  They  bear  vig- 
orous shoots  and  full-grown,  smooth,  dark  green  foliage;  often,  also, 
green  half-grown  fruits,  which  afterwards  ripen  in  a  normal  manner. 
There  is  no  indication  of  disease  except  in  the  fruit,  which,  in  color  and 
size,  contrasts  strikingly  with  the  fine  green  foliage  and  the  normal  im- 
mature fruit.  Occasionally,  in  places,  the  foliage  already  begins  to 
look  yellowish  green,  while  weak,  pale  sprouts  begin  to  push  through 
the  bark.  Sometimes  branches  bearing  good  foliage  are  covered  from 
ba&e  to  tip  with  these  feeble  shoots.  They  grow  vertically  through  the 
bark  on  the  upper  surface.  Later,  in  summer  or  autumn,  or  the  follow- 
ing spring,  such  branches  begin  to  show  marked  indications  of  disease. 
The  spring  foliage  is  yellowish  or  reddish  green,  dwarfed,  rolled,  and 
curled;  and  the  shoot-axes  are  stunted.  Commonly,  especially  in 
moist  seasons,  many  feeble  branched  sprouts  are  developed  on  the 
trunk  and  the  base  of  the  main  limbs.  Again,  stem  and  limb  shoots 
will  grow  normally  and  very  vigorously  for  several  feet  and  then  all  at 
once  branch  repeatedly  near  the  extremity  in  a  very  feeble  and  peculiar 
way.  Many  of  these  growths  are  due  to  the  excessive  and  abnormal 
development  of  obscure  buds  hidden  in  the  deeper  layers  of  the  bark 
or  developed  from  the  cambium.  Why  they  should  germinate  in  such 
numbers,  and  often  in  midsummer  or  autumn  when  the  tree  has  passed 
its  period  of  active  growth,  remains  to  be  explained.  The  appearance 
suggests  a  profound  disturbance  of  the  distributive  metabolism  of  the 
plant  followed  by  an  equally  profound  distubance  of  the  function  of 
assimilation.  The  branched  character  of  many  of  the  growths  results 


14  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

from  the  premature  and  abnormal  development  of  ordinary  winter  buds. 
These  begin  to  grow  as  soon  as  they  are  formed  in  the  leaf  axils,  and 
the  feeble  shoots  to  which  they  give  rise  develop  buds  which  also  ger- 
minate the  same  season,  and  so  on  (plates  v  and  vi).  The  winter  buds 
upon  healthy-looking  terminal  branches  and  stem  and  limb  shoots 
may  also  unfold  prematurely  into  diseased  growths.  This  may  take 
place  at  any  time  from  early  spring  to  late  autumn.  It  is  very  com- 
mon in  September,  October,  and  November,  and  is  one  of  the  strik- 
ing characteristics  of  this  disease  (plate  n,  from  a  photograph  made 
at  Amherst,  Massachusetts,  December  4;  see  also  plates  in  and  iv, 
made  from  photographs  taken  in  Maryland  in  the  autumn  of  1890). 
Plate  ii  represents  a  shoot  taken  from  the  trunk  near  the  earth.  Plate 
in  represents  one  healthy  shoot  and  three  diseased  shoots  taken  from 
the  base  of  main  limbs.  The  spring  foliage  remains  on  the  healthy  shoot 
(Fig.  2)  and  its  winter  buds  are  dormant.  On  the  contrary,  nearly  all  of 
the  spring  foliage  has  fallen  from  the  diseased  shoots  (Fig.  1),  and  many 
of  the  winter  buds,  terminal  and  axillary,  have  germinated.  Plates  iv 
and  vi  represent  the  same  appearances  in  terminal  branches.  The  pre- 
maturity extends  also  to  the  blossoms,  which  generally  come  out  earlier 
than  on  healthy  trees,  and  appear  sometimes  even  in  autumn  (plate 
IV,  made  from  a  photograph  taken  October  15,  1890).  My  attention 
was  first  drawn  to  this  symptom  in  the  spring  of  1890,  but  extensive 
observations  were  then  impossible.  In  the  autumn  of  1890,  and  again 
in  the  spring  of  1891,  about  0,000  trees  were  examined  with  special 
reference  to  the  effect  of  yellows  upon  the  blossoms.  All  of  these  trees 
are  in  Maryland  and  Delaware,  and  all  were  healthy  in  the  autumn  of 
1890.  About  500  of  them  were  found  diseased  in  whole  or  in  part  in 
the  spring  of  1891,  having  developed  yellows  between  fall  and  spring. 
The  most  characteristic  symptom  was  the  general  pushing  of  leaf  buds 
one  to  two  weeks  in  advance  of  the  proper  time.  This  was  peculiarly 
striking  by  contrast  whenever  the  trees  developed  symptoms  on  one  or 
two  limbs  only.  On  many  of  these  trees  some  of  the  blossoms  also 
came  out  very  early,  and  were  destroyed  by  frosts,  but  in  general,  the 
disease  could  be  detected  in  these  trees  before  the  blossoms  opened. 

In  this  climate  under  normal  conditions  winter  buds  of  the  peach  do 
not  germinate  until  after  a  considerable  period  of  rest.  They  never  un- 
fold in  the  autumn,  and  it  is  difficult  to  induce  them  to  do  so  even  in 
winter.  This  period  of  rest  may  be  shortened  somewhat  by  mild  winters 
and  early  springs,  or  by  artificial  means,  e.  </.,  June  budding,  but  it  is 
not  abrogated  in  nature,  so  far  as  I  know,  except  under  the  influence  of 
this  peculiar  disease,  and  the  one  described  in  Part  II. 

When  the  winter  buds  become  affected  in  spring,  the  growths  to 
which  they  give  rise  are  occasionally  more  extensive  but  are  somewhat 
variable,  their  appearance  depending,  of  course,  to  a  great  extent,  upon 
the  length  of  the  iuternodes  and  the  amount  of  branching.  Different 
forms  of  these  terminal  spring  and  summer  growths  are  shown  in  plates 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    DISEASE.  15 

V  and  vi.  Plate  v  is  from  a  Michigan  tree,  and  is  very  unusually  tufted. 
Plate  vi,  No.  1,  is  the  ordinary  Delaware  form;  while  No.  2  of  the 
same  plate  is  an  appearance  common  in  late  autumn.  In  Delaware  and 
Maryland  these  last  were  more  than  usually  abundant  in  the  tops  of 
vigorous  trees  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1890. 

So  much  concerning  the  characteristics  of  the  disease.  Now,  in  con- 
clusion, some  words  upon  its  progress. 

Gradually  or  simultaneously,  as  the  case  may  be,  all  of  the  limbs  de- 
velop the  same  symptoms.  Consequently,  the  tree  falls  into  a  decline 
and  finally  dies.  Trees  once  attacked  rarely,  if  ever,  recover.  This 
statement  is  still  in  dispute,  but  I  feel  quite  sure.  Hundreds  of  yel- 
lowed and  decaying  orchards  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  peninsula  bear  witness  every  day  to  the  truth  of  this  asser- 
tion. In  a  very  few  instances  I  have  had  trees  pointed  out  to  me  as 
once  diseased  and  now  recovered,  but  no  such  cases  have  ever  come 
under  nay  own  observation.  Always  such  trees  have  shown  symptoms 
of  disease  later  on,  or  else  there  was  some  uncertainty  connected  with 
the  original  diagnosis  of  the  case  (p.  30), 

The  duration  of  the  disease  varies  greatly.  If  the  symptoms  progress 
slowly  from  limb  to  limb,  the  tree  may  live  a  long  time.  If  the  whole 
tree  is  speedily  involved,  decay  and  death  are  correspondingly  rapid. 
I  have  known  trees  to  die  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  but  such  is  not 
usually  the  case.  In  Maryland  and  Delaware,  as  well  as  in  regions 
farther  north,  the  affected  trees  generally  live  from  two  to  five  years, 
and  possibly  longer  in  some  cases.  Incidentally  I  am  keeping  watch 
of  several  hundred  trees  to  determine  this  point  more  accurately.  The 
trees  are  worthless  from  the  start  and  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
the  disease  appears.  If  allowed  to  remain,  complete  death  occurs,  very 
frequently,  the  third  or  fourth  year,  the  last  feeble  sign  of  vitality 
being  a  few  yellowish  tufts  on  the  trunk  or  some  of  the  limbs  (plate 
Vila).  The  tree  shown  in  plate  vnfr  was  attacked  in  the  spring  of  1887, 
when  it  was  5  years  old,  i.  e,,  set  5  years.  At  that  time  the  tree  was 
remarkably  vigorous  and  handsome.  It  died  in  the  summer  of  1890, 
i.  6.,  about  3|  years  from  the  time  it  first  developed  symptoms,  but  its 
foliage  was  yellowish  the  second  year,  and  vegetation  during  the  last 
year  of  its  life  was  very  scanty  and  feeble,  being  confined  principally 
to  branching  sprouts  on  the  bases  of  the  larger  limbs. 

Generally  speaking,  the  longer  the  disease  has  prevailed  unmolested 
in  any  locality  the  greater  is  the  number  of  cases  annually,  and  the  less 
is  the  probability  of  getting  trees  up  to  bearing  age  before  they  are 
attacked.  This  peculiar  and  interesting  fact  has  been  observed  repeat- 
edly in  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Delaware,  and 
Michigan. 


16  PEACH  YELLOWS. 

II.— INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  1. — The  trees  selected  for  tins  series  of  inoculations  were 
grown  from  Smock  seed,  procured  in  Kent  County,  Maryland.  They 
formed  part  of  a  large  nursery  owned  by  Norris  Barnard,  Still  Pond, 
Maryland.  When  first  seen  the  seedlings  were  about  5  mouths  old,  and 
were  being  worked  for  commercial  purposes.  They  numbered  more 
than  100,000,  and  all  presented  a  very  healthy,  thrifty  appearance. 
The  trees  devoted  to  the  experiment  were  in  one  corner,  and  not  dif- 
ferent in  appearance  from  the  rest. 

The  buds  for  inoculation  were  cut  in  an  orchard  on  the  Bay  farm  of 
James  S.  Harris,  Still  Pond,  Maryland.  They  came  from  diseased  shoots 
on  15  or  20  vigorous,  4-year  old  trees.  These  trees  had  shown  no  symp- 
toms of  disease  until  that  summer,  when  they  bore  the  red-spotted,  pre- 
maturely ripened  fruit  as  well  as  the  characteristic  shoots. 

The  buds  were  cut  August  12, 1887,  and  inserted  the  same  day.  The 
manner  of  insertion  was  like  that  ordinarily  practiced  in  reproduction 
by  budding,  i.  e.,  the  bud,  with  a  portion  of  the  surrounding  bark  and 
often  some  of  the  underlying  wood,  was  inserted  under  the  bark  of  the 
seedling  about  6  inches  from  the  ground,  by  means  of  a  T-shaped  slit. 
The  insert  was  then  bound  into  place  securely  by  strings,  which  were 
cut  or  loosened  at  the  expiration  of  ten  days.  According  to  their  size 
the  trees  received  one  or  two  buds,  none  more  than  two. 

In  most  instances  the  wood  and  bark  which  were  inserted  healed  on 
quickly  and  retained  their  vitality  over  winter,  but  there  was  no  growth 
from  the  buds  that  autumn,  nor  any  symptoms  of  disease  in  the  stocks. 
The  seedling  tops  were  removed  in  the  spring. 

One  year  from  budding  these  trees  were  reexamined.  Three-quarters 
of  the  inserted  buds  had  failed  to  push.  Of  the  rest  some  had  grown 
into  diseased  shoots;  others  (a  few)  had  grown  into  shoots  which  did 
not  yet  show  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  yellows.  The  effect  on  the 
stocks  was  marked.  About  34  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  (202)  had 
become  diseased  beyond  question,  while  only  23  per  cent  were  entirely 
healthy.  Some  of  the  trees  had  died  during  the  summer,  evidently 
from  the  effects  of  the  disease.  A  few  yet  living  were  badly  affected, 
but  most  of  them  showed  only  slight  symptoms.  Nevertheless,  here 
were  the  feeble  shoots  and  the  winter  buds  germinating  6  mouths  in 
advance  of  the  proper  time. 

The  evidence  seemed  to  be  overwhelming  and  complete,  for  while 
the  experiment  was  performed  in  a  region  were  the  disease  occurs  it 
was  on  a  large  scale,  and  moreover  the  remainder  of  this  nursery  and 
other  nurseries  in  the  same  region,  subject  so  far  as  known  to  the  same 
influences,  were  examined  in  vain  for  anything  which  would  correspond. 
The  542  trees  in  adjoining  rows,  which  were  examined  critically  for 
comparison,  showed  no  traces  of  the  disease,  although  all  other  condi- 
tions appeared  to  be  identical.  The  fact  that  peach  yellows  in  that 


THE    BARNARD    TREES.  17 

locality  was  comparatively  rare  in  trees  under  3  years  of  age,  is  also 
opposed  to  tbe  view  that  the  proximity  of  diseased  orchards  had  any- 
thing1 to  do  with  this  special  case.  With  a  full  knowledge  of  the  facts 
the  conclusion  was  irresistible  that  the  infection  came  only  from  the 
inserted  buds. 

An  examination  made  in  November,  i.  e.,  3  months  later,  showed 
plainly  that  the  disease  was  progressing — more  trees  were  dead  and 
fewer  were  healthy.  At  that  date  the  number  of  stocks  clearly  affected 
amounted  to  40  per  cent.  The  control  trees  were  still  free  from  the 
disease,  although  they  stood  close  upon  both  sides  in  parallel  rows. 
Plate  vm,  made  from  photographs,  shows  the  condition  of  3  of  these 
inoculated  trees  November  3,  1888. 

Ten  of  the  inoculated  and  diseased  trees  were  removed  that  autumn 
and  set  in  Washington  on  the  grounds  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. The  remainder  were  left  over  winter  in  the  nursery  rows.  In  the 
spring  of  1889  the  latter  were  carefully  removed  and  set  out'  on  the  farm 
of  Dr.  W.  S.  Maxwell,  some  miles  distant.  None  made  any  growth 
worth  mentioning  and  all  died  within  a  year — some  from  the  shock  of 
transplanting  and  the  rest  with  plain  symptoms  of  yellows. 

The  ten  trees  set  on  the  Department  grounds  made  considerable 
growth  in  1889,  and  developed  into  very  characteristic  specimens  of 
yellows.  The  germination  of  the  winter  buds  6  or  8  mouths  in  advance 
of  the  proper  time  occurred  freely  on  many  shoots  arising  from  the 
stock  and  fully  set  at  rest  all  lingering  doubts  respecting  the  nature 
of  the  disease.  The  foliage  was  yellowish  or  reddish,  and  the  total 
growth  as  compared  with  neighboring  healthy  trees  was  also  very 
meager  and  stunted  (plate  ix,  from  a  photograph  made  October  21, 
1889,  wherein  the  trees  are  contrasted  with  two  healthy  seedlings — each 
1  year  younger).  Plate  x,  from  a  part  of  the  same  row,  brings  out 
certain  details  more  distinctly.  These  trees  were  again  photographed, 
November  21,  1890,  at  which  time  the  unbudded  seedlings  were  much 
larger  and  still  healthy,  while  the  inoculated  trees  were  dead  or 
nearly  dead  (plates  xt  and  xn).  Between  this  date  and  the  time 
when  the  trees  were  set  they  were  examined  repeatedly  and  shown 
to  various  persons.  During  all  this  period  they  had  unmistakable 
symptoms  of  yellows  and  became  gradually  more  and  more  feeble. 
The  moving  of  the  trees  into  different  and  fertile  soil  did  no  good.  The 
five  unbudded  seedling  trees  standing  in  the  same  row  are  more  than  100 
times  as  large,  although  one  year  younger.  There  was  no  shock  from 
transplanting,  and  the  difference  in  size  must  be  ascribed  to  the  stunt- 
ing effect  of  the  disease.  Jn  passing,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
5  healthly  seedlings  are  those  noted  in  my  first  Eeport,*  p.  145,  as  hav- 
ing grown  from  the  pits  of  premature  peaches.  These  trees  have  con- 
tinued healthly  and  now  bear  a  heavy  crop  of  green  fruit  (July,  1891). 

*  Peach  Yellows  :   A  preliminary  report.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  188d, 
1G09— Bull  1 2 


18  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

Of  the  entire  202  trees  inoculated  August  12,  1887,  only  3  are  now 
living,  and  each  of  these  is  badly  diseased  and  likely  to  die  within 
6  months.  Of  this  experiment  it  may  be  said  that  all  doubts  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  the  disease  were  long  since  set  at  rest.  It  has 
corresponded  exactly  in  manner  of  development  and  in  results  to  the 
disease  in  the  trees  from  which  the  buds  came.  Exception  must,  of 
course,  be  noted  that  none  of  these  trees  have  ever  borne  fruit.* 

The  virulent  nature  of  the  disease  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  only  one 
or  two  buds,  i.  e.,  1-2  square  centimetres  of  diseased  surface,  were  in. 
serted  into  each  tree.  Its  slow  progress  through  the  tissues  is  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  no  symptoms  were  visible  until  after  3  months 
and  probably  none  until  the  following  May  or  June — 8  to  9  months 
after  the  date  of  inoculation.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  inserted 
buds  produced  the  same  effect,  although  cut  from  many  different  trees. 

Experiment  2. — The  trees  selected  for  this  series  of  inoculations  were 
much  like  those  used  in  Xo.  1.  They  were  grown  from  Tennessee  seed 
and  formed  part  of  a  large  nursery  owned  by  Thomas  J.  Shallcross,  Lo- 
cust Grove,  Maryland.  The  seedlings  numbered  about  100,000,  and  were 
very  thrifty.  I  first  saw  them  at  budding  time,  when  they  were  about 
5  months  old.  The  trees  devoted  to  this  experiment  were  two  outer 
rows,  not  different  in  appearance  from  the  rest. 

The  buds  for  inoculation  were  cut  from  an  orchard  on  the  same  farm. 
They  came  from  healthy -looking  shoots  on  a  vigorous  6-year-old  tree. 
This  tree  had  shown  no  symptoms  of  disease  until  that  summer,  when 
some  of  its  limbs  bore  premature  fruit  and  the  characteristic  shoots. 

*  So  far  as  I  know,  the  only  well-authenticated  case  in  which  buds  taken  from  a  dis- 
eased tree  and  inserted  into  a  healthy  stock  have  lived  long  enough  and  developed 
vigorously  enough  to  bear  peaches,  is  one  communicated  by  Prof.  E.  S.  Goff,  horti- 
culturist of  the  State  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wisconsin.  This  experiment  was 
begun  on  the  grounds  of  the  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva,  New  York,  in  1886.  Pro- 
fessor GofPs  statement  from  memory  is  as  follows  : 

"The  tree  budded  was  a  very  vigorous  seedling  of  bearing  size.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  summer  in  1886, 1  budded  several  of  the  branches  with  buds  of  two  (or  three  ?) 
varieties  of  the  peach,  sent  me  by  a  young  man  of  western  New  York  whose  orchard 
was  badly  infested  with  yellows  and  who  was  deeply  interested  in  the  subject.  He 
assured  me  at  the  time  that  the  buds  came  from  diseased  trees. 

"More  than  one-half  the  buds  failed,  but  several  survived  and  made  a  good  growth 
the  following  season,  without  exhibiting  any  abnormal  appearance.  The  next  season 
(1888)  the  branches  from  the  buds  bore  a  good  crop  of  fruit,  and  the  peaches  early 
began  to  manifest  a  peculiar  appearance,  which  I  recognized  from  description  as  the 
yellows.  The  ground  of  the  fruit  became  a  golden-yellow  color,  sprinkled  and 
blotched  on  the  sunny  side  with  very  bright  or  sometimes  with  deep  red.  I  am  not 
personally  familiar  with  the  yellows,  having  seen  but  a  few  trees  affected  with  it, 
but  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  branches  from  the  buds  inserted  into  this  tree 
were  attacked  with  the  disease.  I  came  away  from  Geneva  in  the  spring  of  1889, 
and  in  the  fall  of  that  year,  anxious  to  know  what  further  symptoms  this  tree  had 
manifested,  if  any,  I  wrote  to  Mr.  Churchill,  who  then  had  charge  of  the  fruit  trees, 
and  was  informed  by  him  that  the  tree  had  died." 

Dr.  Collier,  the  present  director  of  the  Geneva  Station,  says  that  the  tree  was  in  an 
exposed  situation  and  died  from  an  accidental  injury. 


THE    SHALLCROSS    TREES.  19 

One  limb  of  the  tree  was  badly  diseased  only  a  short  distance  from 
where  the  shoots  were  cut. 

The  buds  were  cut  August  3,  1887,  and  inserted  the  same  day.  One 
bud  only  was  put  into  each  tree.  The  manner  of  inoculation  was  sub- 
stantially like  that  already  described.  Subsequent  examination  showed 
that  a  union  between  bud  and  stock  had  taken  place  in  every  instance, 
or  nearly  every  one,  the  budder  having  been  very  expert.  No  buds 
pushed  and  no  symptoms  of  disease  developed  that  autumn. 

In  the  spring  of  1888,  while  the  buds  were  yet  dormant,  these  trees 
were  removed  to  Hubbardston,  Michigan,  and  set  10  by  10  feet  apart, 
principally  upon  a  moderately  fertile,  sandy  loam,  which  had  been  used 
for  a  garden.  This  location  was  selected  as,  on  the  whole,  the  best  that 
could  be  had  at  that  time.  The  soil  has  been  cleared  of  forest  and 
brought  under  cultivation  since  1850.  There  were  and  are  no  known 
cases  of  yellows  within  40  miles,  and  the  nearest  commercial  orchards  are 
20  miles  away,  and  not  extensive,  By  long  residence  I  am  familiar  with 
the  whole  country,  and  believe  that  the  only  peach  trees  in  that  town- 
ship or  the  adjoining  ones  are  such  as  have  been  planted  very  sparingly 
in  gardens  or  around  houses.  To  most  farms  and  gardens  this  tree  is 
an  entire  stranger.  The  principal  objection  to  the  location,  and  a  serious 
one,  was  the  danger  from  low  winter  temperatures  and  sudden  fluctu- 
ations, which  in  the  past  had  frequently  killed  peach  trees  to  the  ground, 
and  consequently  had  long  since  very  effectually  discouraged  planting. 
However,  the  risk  was  taken,  and,  as  good  fortune  would  have  it,  the 
winters  of  1889  and  1890  were  so  mild  that  the  trees  did  not  suffer  in 
the  least. 

Altogether  336  trees  were  set,  and  upon  my  father's  place,  that  I 
might  have  the  land  more  fully  under  control.  Two  hundred  and  ten 
were  the  inoculated  trees  already  mentioned  and  126  were  unbudded 
seedlings  from  the  same  nursery  to  be  used  in  making  comparisons. 

These  trees  were  set  out  April  24,  under  personal  direction,  and 
were  examined  carefully,  one  by  one,  as  late  as  June  26  of  that  year. 
At  that  date  there  was  no  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  two  lots. 
Six  of  each  were  dead,  apparently  from  the  shock  of  transplanting. 
The  remainder  of  the  unbudded  trees  were  perfectly  healthy  j  and  the 
remainder  of  the  inoculated  ones  appeared  to  be  so,  with  the  exception 
of  one  tree  which  began  to  look  suspicious.  In  60  per  cent  of  the  in- 
oculated trees  the  bud  had  failed  to  push,  although  the  bark  inserted 
with  it  was  yet  alive  in  most  instances. 

In  96  per  cent  of  the  seedlings  the  top  was  purposely  allowed  to  re- 
main at  the  time  of  transplanting,  only  enough  being  removed  to 
balance  the  slight  loss  of  roots.-  The  others  were  cut  back  to  the  in- 
serted bud.  The  trees  suffered  no  injury  in  transit,  were  provided  with 
excellent  roots,  and,  with  the  exception  of  87  set  in  new  ground  on 
upturned  and  tough  sod,  grew  vigorously  from  the  start  and  promised 
well. 


20 


PEACH    YELLOWS. 


In  autumn,  on  several  occasions,  my  father  reported  tbat  some  of  the 
inoculated  trees  had  begun  to  look  yellow  and  sickly.  However,  I  did 
not  see  them  until  July  1,  1889,  i.  e.,  one  year  from  the  previous  ex- 
amination and  twenty  three  months  from  the  insertion  of  the  buds. 
The  change  was  then  so  great  that  I  could  scarcely  credit  my  eyes, 
With  one  exception,  the  uubudded  trees  continued  healthy  and  had 
made  a  good  growth.  On  the  other  hand  a  very  considerable  number 
of  the  inoculated  trees  were  already  dead,  and  most  of  the  remainder 
were  in  all  stages  of  decline,  dwarfed,  yellow,  and  sickly.  Evidently 
some  sort  of  virus  was  communicated  by  the  inoculated  diseased  bud 
to  the  previously  healthy  seedling,  and  this  was  probably  transmitted 
to  all  parts  of  the  tree.  At  least,  symptoms  were  visible  to  the  very 
extremities  of  the  branches,  3  to  4  feet  from  the  point  of  inoculation. 
A  few  trees  only  had  made  a  tolerable  growth  and  seemed  to  be  resist- 
ing the  evil  influence. 

As  in  Experiment  1,  here  were  the  feeble,  branched  growths  and  the 
winter  buds  germinating  months  in  advance  of  the  proper  time.  Again 
there  could  be  no  question  as  to  the  nature  of  the  disease.  Some  rep- 
resentative photographs  (plates  xui-xvii)  made  July  1,  1889,  show, 
as  well  as  can  be  done  in  black  and  white,  the  strikingly  different 
appearance  of  these  two  lots  of  trees.  The  exact  conditions  in  August 
were  as  follows : 

TABLE  I. — Resiilt  of  inoculations  two  years  from  the  time  the  buds  were  inserted  as  shown 
by  comparison  of  budded  and  imbudded  trees. 


126  unbudded  trees. 

210  budded  trees. 

Healthy. 

Doubtful. 

Diseased. 

Dead. 

Healthy. 

Doubtful. 

Diseased. 

Dead. 

117 

1 

0 

8 

3 

16 

1 
103 

83 

From  that  day  to  this  the  contrast  has  become  greater  and  greater 
as  the  condition  of  the  inoculated  trees  has  gone  on  from  bad  to  worse. 

The  orchard  was  reexainiiied  July  29-31,  1890,  and  another  series  of 
photographs  procured  (plates  xvm-xxiv).  The  condition  of  the  in- 
oculated trees  was  found  to  be  much  worse  than  last  year.  All  which 
were  doubtful  or  seemed  to  be  healthy  in  1889  had  become  diseased,  and 
many  more  had  died  with  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  the  yellows. 
Only  two  of  the  inoculated  trees  made  any  noteworthy  growth  in  1890, 
and  the  best  one  of  these  two  is  shown  in  plate  xvin,  fig.  1.  Of  the 
entire  219*  trees  which  received  diseased  buds  August  3,  1887,  only  15 
were  living  at  the  expiration  of  the  third  year.  Nearly  all  of  those 
which  died  were  more  or  less  stunted  and  showed  symptoms  of  yellows 
either  in  the  form  of  branching  summer  growths  or  of  winter  buds 
which  germinated  in  autumn. 


*Nine  were  rejected  at  time  of  planting  on  account  of  injuries  received  in  digging. 
The  number  198  given  in  my  Preliminary  Report  is  a  typographical  error. 


THE    NICHOLSON    TREES. 


21 


Up  to  date  only  one  case  of  yellows  has  developed  in  the  imbudded 
trees,  the  tree  noted  as  suspicious  in  1889. 

A  number  of  the  unbudded  trees  at  one  end  of  the  orchard  died  in  the 
spring  of  1890  from  some  unknown  cause,  not  yellows.  They  dried  up 
suddenly,  much  as  if  they  had  been  injured  by  plowing  or  by  moles. 
The  roots,  however,  seemed  intact  and  the  origin  of  the  trouble  was  not 
to  be  learned  in  July.  It  is  sufficient  that  it  was  not  yellows  or  any- 
thing suggestive  of  that  disease.  Four  of  the  trees  set  on  sod  ground 
also  dried  up  during  the  summer.  All  the  rest  of  these  trees  (86)  made 
an  excellent  growth  in  1890  and  were  thrifty  and  beautiful  to  look  upon 
(plates  xxin  and  xxiv).*  The  photographs  from  the  unbudded  trees 
represent  average  specimens,  while  those  from  the  inoculated  trees  in- 
clude the  best,  and,  in  fact,  almost  everything. 

For  several  reasons  this  experiment  is  more  interesting  than  No.  1, 
although  the  results  are  identical.  First,  the  inserted  buds  were  taken 
from  shoots  that  appeared  to  be  healthy ;  second,  the  disease  developed 
more  slowly  than  in  Experiment  1,  owing  probably  to  the  different  char- 
acter of  the  buds ;  third,  a  smaller  amount  of  infective  material  was 
used ;  fourth,  the  inception  and  progress  of  the  disease  occurred  in  a 
locality  entirely  free  from  yellows.  This  experiment  confirms  No,  1. 
In  addition,  it  proves  that  yellows  may  be  communicated  by  parts  of  a 
tree  which  seem  to  be  healthy  and  renders  it  probable  that  the  disease 
is  incubating  in  all  parts  of  a  tree  when  it  appears  in  any  part.  In 
passing,  it  may  be  said  that  the  results  of  the  excision  experiments  de- 
scribed in  Part  III  point  to  the  same  conclusion.  It  is  also  noteworthy 
that  each  of  these  trees  was  infected  by  a  single  bud,  and  that  all  of 
these  buds  were  cut  from  a  single  tree.  The  inference  is  very  strong 
that  this  one  tree  contained  infective  material  sufficient  to  destroy  en- 
tire orchards  if  properly  introduced  into  the  trees.  Both  experiments 
go  to  show  that  the  germ  or  virus  of  the  disease  must  be  quite  uni- 
formly distributed  through  the  affected  parts. 

Experiments  3  and  4  (the  E.  (r.  Nicholson  trees  and  the  D.P.  Barnard 
trees)  are  incomplete,  owing  to  the  temporary  discontinuance  of  this 
investigation  in  the  spring  of  1888. 

*  These  trees  were  re-examined  August  12,  1891,  with  the  following  results: 
Average  height  of  the  north  two  rows  (37  trees),  9.9  feet;  average  circumference 
of  trunk,  8  inches.  Average  height  of  the  south  three  rows  (49  trees),  8.1  feet;  aver- 
age circumference  of  trunk,  5.7  inches.  Twelve  of  the  trees  have  mildewed  badly 
this  year,  one  has  yellows,  and  several  others  are  small.  Otherwise  all  are  healthy 
and  growing  vigorously.  The  difference  in  amount  of  growth  is  referable  to  the  un- 
like methods  of  treatment.  They  have  been  cultivated  with  crops  as  follows: 


Plot. 

1888. 

1889. 

1800. 

1891. 

North  two  rows 

Strawberries 

South  thiee  rows  .. 

Corn  

Wheat  

Clover  

Corn. 

The  growth  of  a  crop  of  wheat  in  1889  and  the  absence  of  cultivation  the  follow- 
ing year,  when  the  trees  were  in  clover  sod,  checked  the  growth  of  the  south  three 
rows  nearly  one-third.  Of  the  inoculated  trees  only  six  remain,  and  they  are  like  the 
three  left  from  Experiment  1. 


22  PEACH   YELLOWS. 

At  the  time  of  removal  Mr.  Barnard  reserved  ten  trees  from  experiment 
4,  and  set  them  with  others  of  the  same  age  in  an  orchard  on  his  farm. 
According  to  his  statement,  January  10,  1889,  they  made  a  good 
growth  in  1888  and  were  as  healthy  as  any  trees.  September  20, 1890, 
Mr.  Barnard  reported  that  the  trees  were  still  healthy,  but  they  were 
not  personally  inspected  until  January  26,  1891. 

At  that  date  the  following  conditions  prevailed :  One  tree  was  gone ; 
one  tree  had  made  no  growth  worth  mentioning  and  was  dead  with 
symptoms  of  yellows ;  three  were  much  smaller  than  should  be  and 
were  suffering  from  yellows  or  at  least  presented  what  seemed  to  me 
satisfactory  symptoms ;  one  was  doubtful ;  and  four  were  nice  trees. 
The  latter  had  made  a  reasonable  growth  and  appeared  to  be  free  from 
disease.  Plate  xxv  shows  the  best  one  of  the  healthy  trees.  These 
trees  were  budded  in  a  locality  where  yellows  is  very  prevalent  and  have 
remained  there  ever  since,  i.  <?.,  over  3J  years.  Therefore,  it  can  not  be 
asserted  unqualifiedly  that  the  diseased  trees  resulted  from  the  insertion 
of  diseased  buds,  since  the  possibility  of  subsequent  infection  is  not  ex- 
cluded. The  possibility,  however,  is  not  great,  because  the  trees  were 
badly  dwarfed,  as  if  they  had  been  diseased  from  the  start,  The  trees 
which  still  appear  to  be  healthy  are,  therefore,  the  only  really  interest- 
ing ones.  Their  behavior  during  the  next  year  or  two  will  be  a  matter 
of  considerable  interest,  as  throwing  additional  light  on  the  question 
whether  the  whole  tree  is  diseased  when  symptoms  appear  in  any  part 
of  it. 

For  this  experiment  the  buds  were  selected  with  great  care  from  ter- 
minal branches  upon  the  healthy-looking  side  of  a  diseased  seedling  tree 
which  was  about  4  years  old.  If  any  portion  of  the  tree  was  free  from 
the  disease  these  branches  should  have  been.  The  buds  were  cut  and 
inserted  September  7,  1887.  The  tree  from  which  they  were  taken 
manifested  symptoms  of  yellows  in  all  parts  in  the  spring  of  1888,  and 
died  that  summer. 

One  failure  of  another  kind  remains  to  be  recorded.  A  large  and 
vigorous  seedling  tree  in  the  yard  of  Prof.  Cleveland  Abbe,  in  Wash- 
ington, was  inoculated  in  a  dozen  terminal  branches  with  buds  taken 
from  one  of  the  10  trees  set  on  the  Department  grounds  and  described 
under  Experiment  1.  The  buds  were  cut  August  15, 1889,  and  inserted 
the  same  day.  The  growth  of  the  tree  from  which  the  buds  came  had 
been  stronger  and  healthier  looking  than  that  of  the  others,  but  fully 
one-half  of  the  winter  buds  were  then  germinating  and  the  inserted 
buds  were  of  this  character. 

This  tree  has  remained  healthy,  but  no  stress  should  be  laid  upon  the 
fact  because  owing  to  the  use  of  a  dull  knife  or  to  the  fact  that  the 
shoot-axes  had  already  pushed,  all  of  the  buds  dried  up  in  a  few  days 
and  entirely  failed  to  unite  with  the  branches.  So  far  as  relates  to  the 
propagation  of  yellows  it  must  be  classed  with  pruning  and  other 
experiments  of  simple  contact  and  I  have  not  yet  obtained  any  indis- 


THE    DEPARTMENT    TREES.  23 

putable  evidence  that  the  disease  can  be  spread  in  this  way,  although  it 
seems  very  probable.  Several  extensive  experiments  of  this  kind  are 
now  in  progress.  In  experiments  1  and  2,  in  all  or  almost  all  of  the 
inoculations  there  was  a  distinct  union  between  the  bud  and  the  stock, 

1.  e.,  between  the  diseased  and  healthy  tissues,  some  months  prior  to 
the  first  appearance  of  symptoms  in  the  stocks. 

Experiment  5. — In  order  to  be  absolutely  certain  as  to  the  healthy 
character  and  sound  constitution  of  the  seedlings,  stones  were  pro- 
cured in  quantity  from  three  localities  free  from  yellows.  These 
were  planted  November  8,  1889,  upon  well  drained  and  fertile  soil  in 
the  grounds  at  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Row  No.  1  were  Ten- 
nessee pits.  "These  pits  were  bought  of  Johnson  &  Stokes,  Philadel- 
phia, and  came  from  London,  Tennessee."  I  procured  them  from  Charles 
Wright,  Seaford,  Delaware.  Eow  No.  2  came  from  Sussex  County,  Dela- 
ware, and  were  also  procured,  from  Mr.  Wright,  who  had  purchased 
them  for  his  own  use.  Concerning  them  he  wrote  :  "The  Delaware 
pits  were  collected  by  myself  of  William  P.  Brown,  of  Seaford,  and 
were  saved  from  old  seedling  trees  in  his  orchard  near  town."  Row 
No.  3  came  from  Caroline  County,  Maryland.  They  were  collected  by 
J.  W.  Kerr,  of  Denton,  for  his  own  use. 

The  seedlings  came  up  satisfactorily  and  made  a  good  growth  in  the 
season  of  1890.  About  100  of  each  row  were  inoculated  and  the  rest 
were  reserved  for  future  experiments. 

The  buds  for  inoculation  were  selected  with  the  greatest  care  from 
17  diseased  trees  in  the  older  orchard  of  James  W.  Green,  Magnolia, 
Delaware  (No.  14  of  first  report).  I  did  not  have  an  orchard  map 
when  the  buds  were  cut,  but,  judging  from  the  appearance  of  the 
trees,  all  were  cases  of  1889.  Each  one  was  plainly  diseased  by  yel- 
lows, but  none  were  wholly  diseased,  i.  e.,  none  appeared  to  be  so. 
One-third  .to  one-half  of  each  tree  was  more  or  less  yellow  and  bore 
the  diseased  shoots,  but  the  other  side  was  green  and  thrifty  and  although 
examined  very  minutely  gave  no  indication  of  disease.  Two  shoots 
were  taken  from  each  tree  (different  limbs).  These  were  2  to  3  feet  long, 
robust,  well  matured  for  the  time  of  year,  and  to  all  appearances  per- 
fectly healthy.  Each  shoot  came  from  the  healthy-looking  side  of  the 
tree,  and  all  bore  smooth,  green,  and  vigorous  leaves,  6  to  9  inches  long. 
Better  looking  buds  were  never  used.  These  shoots  grew  out  at  much 
greater  distances  from  diseased  parts  than  those  used  for  Experiment 

2.  They  were,  cut  July  18,  1890,  immediately  stripped  of  foliage,  and 
wrapped  in  damp  cloths.     Row  1,  was  budded  July  19;  row  2,  July  21; 
and  row  3,  July  22.    All  of  the  buds  were  used  except  some  on  the 
base  of  the  shoots  which  proved  too  large  for  the  stocks.    Two  buds 
were  put  into  each  seedling,  but  owing  to  dry  weather  and  unskillful 
manipulation,  many  of  them  failed  to  unite  with  the  stock.    Others 
healed  on  satisfactorily  but  made  no  growth.    Still  others  made  a 
growth  of  1  to  10  inches,  although  the  tipper  portion  of  the  stocks  was 
purposely  left  uncut  in  order  to  prevent  this. 


24  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

The  stocks  were  healthy  (December  13,  1890),  and  it  was  only  the 
few  buds  which  had  already  developed  into  shoots  that  I  desired  to 
notice  here.  None  of  these  appeared  to  be  perfectly  healthy,  and 
some  of  them  had  developed  very  characteristic  symptoms  of  yellows. 
Plate  xxvi,  from  photographs,  represents  two  good  examples.  One  is 
from  row  1,  the  other  is  from  row  3.  In  both  a  majority  of  the  winter 
buds  germinated  in  autumn.  Since  then  there  have  been  new  devel- 
opments. At  this  date  (July  16,  1891),  28  stocks  show  symptoms  of 
yellows,  and  the  foliage  on  five  or  six  vigorous  shoots,  which  have 
grown  from  inserted  buds,  begins  to  take  on  a  peculiar  yellow  tint 
very  suggestive  of  this  disease.  There  are  cases  in  each  of  the  rows, 
but  most  at  present  in  the  S.  row. 

This  experiment  is,  in  part,  a  repetition  of  No.  2.  Whether  these 
trees  (the  stocks)  will  all  perish  in  the  same  way  remains  to  be  seen.  An- 
other point  important  to  be  settled  is  whether  any  of  the  inserted  buds 
will  develop  into  healthy  trees.  The  seedlings  will  be  transplanted 
at  an  early  date  to  a  locality  entirely  free  from  yellows  and  kept  under 
observation  until  this  can  be  determined. 

III.— EXCISIONS. 

Symptoms  of  peach  yellows,  as  already  noted,  frequently  appear  at 
first  on  one  branch  only,  or  on  one  side  of  a  tree,  while  the  rest  remains 
for  several  or  many  months,  to  all  appearances,  perfectly  normal.  The 
symptoms  of  the  disease  are  progressive  from  part  to  part  until  the  whole 
tree  is  involved,  and  this  has  favored  the  idea  that  the  disease  is  local 
at  first  and  only  constitutional  or  universal  after  the  lapse  of  considerable 
time.  Generally,  in  bearing  years  the  earliest  plain  symptoms  are 
found  in  the  fruit,  and  this  fact  has  led  to  a  strong  popular  belief  that 
the  disease  is  communicated  from  tree  to  tree  by  pollen,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  bees  or  otherwise.  There  is,  however,  absolutely  no 
foundation  in  observation  for  any  such  belief.  The  following  experi- 
ments were  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  determining  whether  the  disease 
is  local  or  constitutional  when  the  first  symptoms  appear.  Assuming 
that  the  cause  of  the  disease  is  a  contagium  which  has  gained  an  en- 
trance into  the  tree  through  such  blossoms  as  develop  into  prematurely 
ripened  fruit,  then  it  follows  that  the  disease  is  first  of  a  local  nature, 
as  the  appearances  indicate ;  and  it  would  seem  that  it  might  be  re- 
moved, in  some  cases  at  least,  if  the  excisions  were  very  prompt  and 
rigorous.  Anyway,  this  was  the  theory  on  which  I  proceeded. 

The  experiments  are  as  follows  : 

A. — Orchard  of  William  Brothers,  Dover,  Delaware. — Trees  set  3|  years ;  both  of  them 
cases  of  1887;  selected  out  of  27  as  being  most  suitable  for  this  experiment.  The 
limbs  which  bore  affected  branches  were  cut  away  close  to  the  body  of  the  tree,  and 
the  stumps  were  painted. 

(1)  September  16,  1887.  Variety,  Beers'  Smock.  This  tree  seemed  to  be  healthy, 
except  parts  of  one  large  limb.  This  limb  showed  slight  beginnings  of  diseased 
sprouts,  and  bore  one  peach,  wbich  was  ripe,  red-spotted  on  the  skiu  and  red  spotted 
and  streaked  in  the  flesh.  The  limb  was  removed. 


EXCISIONS    AND    RESULTS.  25 

RESULT.— August  16,  1883.  The  tree  is  full  of  peaches,  and  three-fourths  of  them 
are  now  ripe  and  red-spotted.  The  proper  time  of  ripening  of  this  variety  in  this 
locality  is  about  the  middle  of  September.  Only  two  small  limbs  bear  green,  healthy 
fruit.  The  foliage  of  the  affected  limbs  is  yellowish,  and  they  bear  a  few  small  dis- 
eased shoots. 

(2)  September  16,  1887.    Variety  not  recorded.     This  tree  bore  no  fruit,  but  dis- 
eased sprouts  had  developed  on  one  limb,  and  to  a  greater  extent  than  on  No.  1.    This 
limb  was  cut  away.     The  rest  of  the  tree  seemed  to  be  healthy. 

KESULT.— August  16,  1888.  The  tree  is  badly  diseased.  It  now  bears  premature 
fruit  on  all  parts.  Also  on  all  of  the  main  limbs  there  are  many  diseased  shoots,  and 
some  of  them  are  large. 

All  of  the  diseased  trees,  except  these  two,  were  removed  in  1887. 

B. — Orchard  of  James  W.  Green,  Magnolia,  Delaware. — Trees  set  5£  years ;  all  cases  of 
1887  ;  selected  out  of  several  hundred  as  being  freest  from  symptoms  of  yellows.  In 
all  of  these  trees  the  disease  appeared  to  be  localized  on  one  or  more  of  the  several 
main  limbs.  In  fact,  I  was  at  great  pains  to  select  trees  which  showed  the  prema- 
ture poaches  and  feeble  shoots  only  upon  a  few  limbs.  Many  otherwise  promising 
trees  were  rejected  because  of  slight  symptoms  upon  the  base  of  the  main  limbs.  In 
several  cases  there  were  yet  no  diseased  sprouts.  In  none  were  there  very  many.  In 
some  of  the  trees  healthy  shoots  of  that  summer  had  grown  out  between  the  diseased 
parts  and  the  point  of  amputation.  The  limbs  were  sawed  off  smoothly  and  the 
stumps  were  painted.  Whenever  a  small  diseased  branch  joined  a  larger  healthy 
limb  I  severed  both,  cutting  below  next  to  the  body  of  the  tree  in  order  to  be  more 
certain  of  success.  In  most  cases,  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  tree  was  removed. 
All  that  was  left,  and  much  of  what  was  cut  away,  appeared  to  be  perfectly  healthy. 
In  some  trees  the  symptoms  of  disease  were  more  pronounced  than  in  others,  but  the 
final  results  were  the  same. 

(1)  September  15,  1887.  Variety,  Beers'  Smock.  Two  main  limbs  were  removed; 
five  of  the  same  size  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  The  tree  now  bears  premature  fruit  on  every  main 
limb.  It  also  bears  diseased  shoots.  Some  of  the  smaller  branches  bear  a  few  sound 
peaches. 

(•2)  September  15,  1887.  Variety,  Beers' Smock.  Three  limbs  were  removed;  three 
were  left. 

RESULT.— August  17,  1888.  The  tree  bears  many  peaches,  most  of  which  are  pre- 
mature. Upon  two  of  the  three  main  limbs,  some  branches  only  still  bear  green, 
healthy  peaches.  The  trunk  and  limbs  also  bear  diseased  shoots. 

(3)  September  15,  1887.    Variety,  Beers'  Smock.     One  small  limb,   1£  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  base,  was  removed  ;  four  large  limbs  with  many  branches  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  The  tree  is  now  badly  diseased  in  every  limb;  and 
bears  almost  nothing  but  premature  fruit,  i.  e.,  there  are  not  over  40  green  peaches 
on  the  entire  tree.  Diseased  shoots  have  also  grown  from  every  limb  and  from  the 
trunk  near  the  earth. 

(4)  September  15,  1887.     Variety,  Beers'  Smock.     A  smaller  tree  than  No.  3.     One 
limb  was  removed,  two  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1883.  One  of  the  two  main  limbs  bears  green,  healthy 
peaches  ;  the  other  bears  mixed  fruit.  That  on  two  branches  is  premature;  that  on 
three  others  is  healthy.  There  are  no  diseased  shoots. 

(5)  September  15,  1887.    Variety,  Beers'  Smock.    A  large,  fine  tree.     One  limb  was 
removed,  four  limbs  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  The  tree  is  now  full  of  fruit  and  at  least  one-half  of  it 
is  premature.  The  diseased  peaches  are  not  confined  to  any  special  part  but  are 
borne  on  all  of  the  main  limbs.  There  are  also  characteristic,  feeble  shoots  on  the 
trunk. 

(6)  September  15,  1887.    Variety,   Beers'  Smock.     A  large  tree.      One  limb  was 
removed,  four  were  left. 


26  PEACH   YELLOWS. 

RESULT.— August  17, 1888.  Two  of  the  four  limbs  bear  green,  healthy  peaches ;  and 
two  bear  premature  ones,  far  out  toward  the  ends  of  the  branches.  Diseased  shoots 
have  also  grown  from  the  base  of  these  two  limbs  and  from  the  trunk  below  the 
excised  limb.  There  are  a  few  green  peaches  on  the  prematured  limbs. 

(7)  September  15,  1887.    Variety,  Wilkins'  Cling.     Two  limbs  were  removed,  three 
were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  One  limb  is  sound,  i.  e.,  no  symptoms  have  developed. 
The  other  two  bear  mixed  fruit ;  on  some  branches  it  is  premature  and  now  fully 
ripe,  on  others  it  is  healthy  and  still  green.  Both  limbs  bear  branched  and  very 
characteristic  yellows  shoots. 

(8)  September  15,  1887.     Variety,  Wilkins'  Cling.     One  branch  was  removed  from 
a  large  limb.    The  remainder  of  this  limb  and  three  other  limbs  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  One  limb  bears  green,  healthy  peaches;  the  others 
bear  prematurely  ripe  fruit  and  branched  and  unbranched  yellows  shoots.  But  some 
branches  bear  sound  peaches.  The  limb  from  which  the  branch  was  removed  is  not 
worse  affected  than  another  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tree. 

(9)  September  15,  1887.     Variety,  Wilkius'  Cling.     One  small  limb  was  removed ; 
three  larger  ones  were  left. 

RESULT.— August  17,  1888.  Most  of  the  peaches  on  this  tree  are  green  and  healthy, 
but  branches  upon  two  of  the  three  limbs  bear  ripe  red-spotted  peaches  and  the 
diseased  shoots. 

(10)  September  15,  1887.     Variety,  Beers'  Smock.     One  limb  was  removed;  throe 
limbs  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  There  are  many  premature  peaches  on  all  parts  of  the 
tree,  but  some  of  the  branches  still  bear  green  ones.  There  are  no  sickly  shoots. 

(11)  September  17,  1887.    Variety,  Crawford's  Late.     One  limb   was  removed; 
three  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  Most  of  this  tree  is  healthy,  i.  e.,  appears  to  be.  Two 
branches  of  one  limb  only  bear  premature,  ripe  fruit,  and  small  feeble  shoots.  A 
large  branched  shoot,  very  typical  of  yellows,  has  also  grown  from  the  body  below 
the  excised  limb. 

(12)  September  17,  1887.     Variety,  Crawford's  Late.     Two  limbs  were  removed; 
three  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  There  are  premature  peaches  and  characteristic  yellows 
shoots  on  every  main  limb.  Some  of  the  branches  on  these  limbs  also  bear  green, 
healthy  fruit. 

(13)  September  17,  1887.     Variety,  Old  Mixon.     One  limb  was  removed;    three 
were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  Most  of  the  tree  bears  green,  healthy  peaches.  One 
limb,  however,  bears  nothing  but  ripe  prematures.  A  small  branch  on  another  limb 
also  bears  this  kind  of  fruit.  The  sickly  shoots  have  developed  on  both  and  on  the 
trunk  below  the  excised  limb. 

(14)  September  17,  1887.     Variety,  Old  Mixon.     Two  limbs  were  removed;  three 
were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  All  of  the  main  limbs  bear  premature  peaches  and  dis- 
eased shoots.  There  are  also  two  much-branched,  yellows  shoots  on  the  trunk — one 
below  the  excised  limbs  and  one  on  the  opposite  side.  The  tree  still  bears  some  green, 
healthy  peaches. 

(15)  September  17,  1887.     Variety,   Stump  the  World.     One  limb  was  removed; 
three  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  One  limb  bears  green,  healthy  peaches.  The  other  two 
bear  mixed  fruit,  i.  e.,  premature,  fully  ripe  peaches  on  some  branches  and  immature 
normal  ones  on  other  branches.  There  are  no  diseased  shoots.  One  small  branch  on 
this  tree  bears  premature  peaches  upon  three  twigs,  and  green  peaches  upon  two 
others.  One  of  the  latter  is  3  inches  and  the  other  is  14  inches  below  the  lowest  twig 


EXCISIONS   AND    RESULTS.  27 

bearing  the  prematures.  The  foliage  and  bark  on  this  branch  appear  to  be  perfectly 
normal,  and  I  can  see  uo  difference  between  the  twigs  bearing  sound  peaches  and 
those  bearing  diseased  ones. 

(16)  September  17,  1887.     Variety,  Stump  the  World.     One  limb  was-  removed; 
three  were  left. 

RESULT.— August  17,  1888.  This  tree  bears  a  great  quantity  of  fruit  and  only  a 
very  a  little  of  it  is  premature.  One  diseased  shoot  has  grown  from  underthe  excised 
limb,  and  there  are  several  noticeable  ones  at  the  junction  of  the  stem  and  roots. 
Otherwise  the  foilage  is  normal  and  the  tree  appears  to  be  healthy. 

(17)  September  17,  1887.    Variety,   Stump  the  World.    One  limb  was  removed; 
four  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  There  are  premature  peaches  and  numerous  diseased 
shoots  upon  every  limb.  Some  of  the  shoots  are  much  branched. 

(18)  September  17, 1887.    Variety,  Stump  the  World.   One  limb  was  removed ;  three 
•were  left. 

RESULT.— August  17,  1888.  This  tree  bears  only  a  few  peaches.  On  two  limbs 
there  are  a  few  prematures,  and  one  shoot  which  has  grown  from  the  trunk  beneath 
the  excised  limb  does  not  look  perfectly  healthy.  The  foliage  of  the  tree  is  normal, 
and  as  in  No.  16  the  symptoms  are  slight. 

(19)  September  17,  1887.     Variety,  Stump  the  World.     One  limb  was  removed; 
three  were  left. 

RESULT. — August  17,  1888.  There  are  premature  peaches  on  every  limb,  and  also 
many  diseased  shoots.  There  are  sound  peaches  on  one  branch  of  one  limb  only. 

These  19  trees  were  reexamined  in  the  autumn  of  1889.  All  of  them  were  then 
yellowish  and  quite  badly  affected.  Few  bore  any  fruit.  They  were  again  examined 
in  the  autumn  of  1890.  At  that  date  all  of  the  shoot-axes  were  dwarfed,  many  win- 
ter buds  were  germinating,  and  the  trees  bore  no  healthy  foliage.  The  leaves  were 
stunted  and  pale  green,  yellowish,  or  red.  Many  branches  were  dead,  but  no  entire 
trees.  They  bore  no  fruit  in  1890. 

So  far  as  I  can  see,  the  progress  of  the  disease  in  these  trees  was  not  retarded  by 
the  excisions.  They  are  now  neither  better  off  nor  worse  than  many  other  cases 
of  1887,  left  for  comparison.  In  9, 16,  and  18  the  symptoms  on  the  remaining  limbs 
were  not  very  numerous  in  1888,  but  I  can  not  be  sure  that  such  might  not  have  been 
the  case  in  any  event,  because  sometimes  the  entire  tree  does  not  succumb  until  the 
third  year. 

C. — Orchard  of  George  Gildersleve,  near  Rising  San,  Delaware  (G.  D.  Jackson,  ten- 
ant).— Trees  set  6  years;  all  cases  of  1887  :  selected  out  of  several  hundred  as  being 
freest  from  symptoms  of  yellows  and,  therefore,  most  suitable  for  the  experiment. 
The  trees  were  free-growing,  thrifty  specimens,  and  in  each  the  disease  appeared  to 
be  localized  on  the  upper  part  of  one  limb.  This  was  cut  away  next  to  the  stem 
and  the  stump  was  painted. 

(1)  September  1 9,  1887.     Variety,  Smock.     One  main  limb  was  removed  ;  two  were 
left. 

RESULT. — August  18,  1888.  One  of  the  limbs  bears  premature  peaches  on  all  parts, 
and  also  many  diseased  shoots.  The  other  bears  green,  healthy  peaches,  and  shows 
no  indication  of  disease. 

(2)  September  19,  1887.     Variety,  Smock.     One  limb  was  removed;  four  were  left. 
RESULT.— August  18,  1888.     This  tree  bears  healthy  fruit  and  foliage  on  all  parts, 

except  one  branch  of  one  limb.  This  bears  premature  peaches  and  about  30  diseased 
shoots.  The  effects  of  the  disease  are  also  apparent  in  the  spring  foliage  and  in  the 
terminal  growths.  The  union  of  this  branch  with  the  main  limb,  which  otherwise 
seems  healthy;  is  4  feet  above  the  stump  of  the  excised  limb. 

(3)  September  19,  1887.     Variety,  Reeves's  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed;  two 
were  left. 

RESULT. — August  18,  1888.     This  tree  now  bears  only  a  few  peaches.    There  were 


28  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

no  prematures,  unless  a  few  may  have  ripened  very  early  and  disappeared.  The 
foliage  is  healthy,  and  the  only  indications  of  disease  are  copious  yellows  shoots  on 
the  trunk  at  the  earth's  surface,  just  below  the  excised  limb. 

D. — Orchard  of  John  A.  Nicholson,  Leipsic,  Delaware. — September  21,  1887.  An 
effort  was  made  to  cut  the  disease  from  3  trees  forming  part  of  a  3-year-old,  39-acre 
orchard  on  the  farm  of  John  A.  Nicholson,  near  Leipsic,  Delaware.  There  were  19 
diseased  trees  and  I  selected  the  ones  which  seemed  most  favorable,  removing 
large  limbs. 

This  orchard  was  not  revisited,  but  I  was  told  that  the  remainder  of  each  tree 
showed  yellows  the  following  season  and  that  there  were  500  new  cases. 

All  these  experiments  were  begun  in  mid-September.  The  next  year  I  repeated  the 
experiments  in  other  orchards,  cutting  away  the  limbs  in  August,  i.  e.,  5  weeks 
earlier. 

E. — Orchard  of  George  Davis,  Still  Pond,  Maryland. — Trees  set  19  years;  cases  of 
1888;  selected  from  about  fifty  as  most  suitable  for  the  experiment.  The  trees  were 
very  large  and  vigorous  for  their  age,  trunks,  about  1  foot  in  diameter  ;  height,  25  to 
30  feet.  I  was  particular  in  the  selection  of  trees  and  cut  back  very  severely,  wast- 
ing much  good  fruit.  The  limbs  were  severed  next  to  the  body  of  the  tree -and  the 
stumps  were  painted. 

(1)  August  9,  1888.     Variety,  not  recorded.     The  tree  was  full  of  peaches,  nearly 
all  of  which  were  green  and  healthy.    Two  small  branches  had  been  cut  away  re- 
cently because  they  bore  premature  fruit.     The  large  limb  which  had  borne  these 
branches  still  bore  a  few  ripe,  red-spotted  peaches,  but  most  of  its  fruit  was  healthy. 
This  limb  was  cut  away  next  the  trunk,  the  stump  being  6  inches  in  diameter  and 
sound.     Part  of  the  other  maiu  limb,  with  much  sound  fruit,  was  also  cut  away  be- 
cause a  few  twigs  on  one  branch  bore  premature  fruit.     One  comparatively  small 
limb  was  left.     This  bore  green  peaches  and  appeared  to  be  perfectly  healthy.     There 
were  yet  no  diseased  shoots  on  any  part  of  the  tree. 

RESULT.— September  20,  1889.  Tree  gone.  Supposed  to  have  been  removed  acci- 
dentally in  spring  or  summer  on  account  of  disease,  the  order  being  to  remove  all 
diseased  trees. 

(2)  August  9,  1888.     Variety,  Mountain  Rose.     A  small  branch  which  bore  prema- 
ture peaches  had  been  removed  recently,  and  another  small  branch  on  the  sam*  limb 
bore  the  ripe  and  red-spotted  fruit.     There  were  no  other  indications  of  disease. 
Even  on  this  limb  nine-tenths  of  the  fruit  and  all  of  the  foliage  appeared  to  be  per- 
fectly normal.     The  limb  was  cut  away  close  to  the  trunk.    The  sound  stump  was  7 
inches  in  diameter.     The  limb  which  remained  bore  thrifty  foliage  and  was  full  of 
green,  healthy  peaches.     A  very  careful  examination  of  all  parts  showed  no  trace  of 
disease. 

RESULT.— September  20, 1889.  There  is  no  fruit.  One  branch  bears  three  diseased 
shoots,  but  the  spring  foliage  of  the  tree  is  still  normal  in  size  and  color. 

(3)  August  9,  1888.  -  Variety,  Reeves's  Favorite.     Parts  of  one  limb  showed  symp- 
toms of  disease;  a  small  branch  had  been  cut  away  recently  on  account  of  yellows 
and  two  other  small  branches  bore  large,  red-spotted,  ripe  fruits,  which  were  in  very 
marked  contrast  to  the  unripe  peaches  upon  the  remainder  of  this  limb  and  upon 
other  parts  of  the  tree.     Eighteen  inches  above  the  cut  a  feeble  shoot,  one-fourth  inch 
long,  was  pushing  through  the  rough  bark.     Eighteen  inches  farther  up  the  limb 
was  a  shoot,  2  to  3  years  old,  which  bore  diseased  sprouts  on  its  base  and  also  6  feet 
above  in  its  top.     These  sprouts  were  small,  i.  e.}  recent  growths.     There  were  no 
other  diseased  sprouts  on  the  tree,  and,  even  on  this  shoot,  most  of  the  buds  were 
dormant  and  most  of  the  foliage  was  green  and  full  grown.     The  limb  which  bore 
these  premature  peaches  and  diseased  sprouts  was  cut  away  close  to  the  body  of  the 
tree,  although  almost  the  whole  of  it  bore  only  healthy  fruit  and  all  of  it  bore  only 
dark-green  and  vigorous  spring  foliage.     The  stump  was  six  inches  in  diameter  and 
decaying  at  the  center.     One  limb  remained.    This  bore  green,  healthy  peaches  upon 


EXCISIONS    AND    RESULTS.  29 

all  of  its  branches.  Its  foliage  was  also  full  grown,  dark  green,  and  very  healthy  in 
appearance.  There  was  not  the  least  indication  of  disease. 

RESULT. — September  20,  18?9.  There  is  no  fruit.  This  tree  now  bears  an  abund- 
ance of  healthy  foliage  and  there  are  no  diseased  sprouts  or  other  indications  of  yel- 
lows— none  whatever. 

This  tree  was  reexamined  October  20,  1890,  and  found  to  be  diseased  in  all  parts.* 
The  wind  had  blown  away  the  top  9  feet  above  the  ground,  but  three  small  branches 
remained.  These  bore  many  diseased  sprouts.  The  trunk  also  bore  similar  sprouts. 

F. — Orchard  of  George  Davis,  Still  Pond,  Maryland. — Trees  set  5  years;  cases  of 
1888;  selected  out  of  about  thirty  as  most  suitable  for  the  experiment.  The  whole 
orchard  was  thrifty  and  fair  to  look  upon. 

(1)  August  9,  1888.    Variety,  Smock.     Two  limbs  were  removed;  one  was  left. 
Those  which  were  cut  away  bore  premature  peaches.     The  one  which  was  left  bore 
green  fruit,  and  seemed  to  be  healthy. 

RESULT. — September  20,  1889.     Still  diseased. 

(2)  August  9,  1888.     Variety,  not  recorded.     This  tree  ramified  near  the  ground 
into  three  main  limbs.     Two  small  branches  on  one  of  these  limbs  bore  premature 
peaches.     The  remainder  of  that  limb, i.e.  most  of  it,  and  the  rest  of  tho  tree, bore 
green,  healthy  fruit.     There  were  no  diseased  sprouts,  and  no  other  indications  of 
yellows,  the  foliage  of  the  whole  tree  being  green,  full-grown,  and  healthy. 

RESULT.— September  20,  1889.     The  tree  is  now  diseased  in  all  parts. 

<}. — Orchard  of  F.  II.  Harper,  Still  Pond, Mart/land.—  Trees  set  7£  years;  all  cases  of 
1888;  selected  out  of  several  hundred  as  being  freest  from  symptoms  of  yellows,  and 
therefore  most  suitable  for  the  experiment.  As  in  Mr.  Greene's  orchard,  and  else- 
where many  otherwise  promising  trees  were  rejected  because  of  slight  symptoms  on 
the  base  of  some  of  the  main  limbs.  All  of  these  trees  were  free-growing  and  thrifty. 
None  of  the  spring  foliage  was  rolled,  curled,  or  yellowish,  except  upon  one  tree. 
The  fine  green  color  and  robust  growth  of  this  foliage,  even  on  affected  limbs,  was 
very  noticable.  The  trees  were  freer  from  symptoms  of  disease  than  at  Mr.  Greene's, 
but  a  larger  portion  of  each  was  cut  away.  In  fact,  the  excisions  were  very  severe 
and  wasted  a  great  many  baskets  of  good  fruit.  Roughly  stated,  I  removed  from 
one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the  whole  top  of  each  tree,  only  a  small  portion  of  which 
in  most  cases  showed  any  indications  of  disease.  The  limbs  w»ire  cut  close  to  the 
body  of  the  tree,  and  their  stumps  were  carefully  coated  with  paint.  These  were  3 
to  4  inches  in  diameter. 

This  orchard  was  believed  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  experiment  because  of  the 
healthful  appearance  of  the  trees,  and  because  of  the  very  gradual  manner  in  which 
many  of  them  had  succumbed  to  the  disease  in  1887  and  1888.  The  cases  of  1887  were 
dug  out  and  removed  that  fall  or  the  following  spring;  the  cases  of  1888,  exclusive 
of  the  trees  under  consideration,  were  cut  back  to  the  stem  that  autumn,  but  were 
not  removed  until  the  end  of  the  next  growing  season. 

(1)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Christiana.  One  limb  was  removed;  two  limbs 
were  left.  The  excised  limb  bore  premature  fruit  on  a  small  portion  only,  i.  e.  two 
small  braoches.  The  remainder  of  its  fruit  was  green  and  healthy.  The  limb  was 
sound  and  there  were  no  diseased  sprouts.  The  fruit  upon  the  remaining  limbs  was 
green  and  healthy  and  the  foliage  was  excellent. 

RESULT.— May  13,  1889.     Apparently  healthy. 

September  17,  1889.  Still  diseased ;  slight  symptoms  upon  two  limbs.  No  fruit 
this  year. 

October  11,  1890.  Tree  decidedly  inferior  looking.  Foliage,  red,  yellow,  dwarfed, 
and  rolled.  In  marked  contrast  to  neighboring  healthy  trees.  Tree,  very  twiggy  ; 
many  of  the  small,  unbranched,  sickly  shoots  which  grew  early  in  the  season  have 
dried  up.  A  few  winter  buds  are  now  pushing,  and  the  terminal  buds  on  a  num- 
ber of  shoots  germinated  about  6  weeks  ago,  No  fruit  this  year. 

*  See  note  to  G  3. 


30  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

(2)  August  10,  1888.      Variety,  Old  Mixon.     One  limb  was  removed;  two  limbs 
were  left.    The  excised  limb  bore  sound  green  peaches  on  nearly  all  parts ;  but  there 
were  premature    peaches  on  one  small  branch.      Foliage,    excellent;    no  diseased 
sprouts;  stump,  sound.     The  limbs  which  were  left  bore  green  peaches  and  beauti- 
ful foliage. 

RESULT.—  May  13,  1889.    Apparently  healthy. 

September  18,  1889.  Still  diseased,  but  the  symptoms  are  slight.  No  fruit  this 
year. 

October  10,  1890.  Plainly  diseased  in  all  parts.  The  spring  foliage  is  reddish. 
Some  weeks  ago  many  terminal  buds  pushed  on  branches  in  the  top  of  the  tree,  and 
each  now  bears  a  whorl  of  pale  green,  spindling  leaves,  2  to  3  inches  long.  On 
many  of  these  branches  the  lower  buds  have  also  germinated,  but  more  recently. 
The  same  symptoms  occur  on  a  dozen  shoots  which  have  grown  from  the  base  of  the 
main  limbs.  No  fruit  this  year. 

(3)  August  11,  1888.     Variety,  Old  Mixon.     One  limb  was  removed;  one  was  left. 
The  excised  limb  branched  into  two  equal  forks  16  inches  above  the  cut.     The  stump 
was  sound  and  the  foliage  on  both  forks  was  full-grown,  green,  and  healthy.     All  of 
the  fruit  on  one  fork  was  green  and  healthy.     Most  of  that  on  the  other  was  also 
green  and  healthy,  but  two  small  branches  bore  ripe,  red-spotted  fruit,  and  also  two 
diseased  shoots  each  only  about  one-fourth  inch  long.      The  remaining  limb  bore 
green  peaches  and  perfectly  healthy  foliage.      There  was  not  the  least  sign  of  yel- 
lows. 

May  13,  1889.     Doubtful.     Vegetation  is  not  far  enough  advanced  to  tell  positively. 

September  18,  1889.  Excision  apparently  entirely  successful.  No  symptoms  of 
yrllov/s.  There  are  no  diseased  sprouts  or  germinating  buds.  The  foliage  also  is 
thrifty  and  of  the  proper  form  and  color.  Half  a  dozen  vigorous  shoots  have  grown 
from  the  base  of  the  remaining  limb.  These  are  2  to  3  feet  long,  and  bear  excellent 
foliage.  No  fruit  this  year. 

October  10,  1890.  The  tree  is  now  diseased,  but  the  symptoms  are  confined  to  one 
shoot.  This  grew  in  the  summer  of  1890  upon  the  base  of  the  main  limb.  It  is  ro- 
bust, unbranched,  and  2  feet  long.  The  terminal  bud  developed  some  time  ago,  has 
grown  2-J  inches,  and  now  bears  a  whorl  of  immature  leaves.  Below,  on  the  same 
shoot,  a  dozen  buds  have  germinated  recently  and  sent  out  leaves  which  are  one- 
fourth  to  three-fourths  inch  long. 

Otherwise  the  tree  looks  as  well  as  its  healthy  fellows,  and  but  for  this  one  shoot  I 
should  certainly  think  it  sound. 

Apparently  the  disease  was  not  removed  by  the  excision,  but  has  hung  about  the 
tree,  or  been  dormant  in  it,  ever  since  1888.  * 

(4)  August  10,  1888.     Variety,  Old  Mixon.     Two  limbs  were  removed,  both  from 
one  side.    On  one  of  these  limbs  was  a  small  branch  bearing  8  or  10  premature  peaches, 
on  the  other  were  two  small  branches  each  bearing  IX)  to  12  premature  peaches.    The 
remainder  of  the  peaches  on  both  limbs,  200  or  more,  were  green  and  healthy.     The 
spring  foliage  was  abundant,  full-grown,  and  healthy.     A  few  small  diseased  shoots, 
one-half  inch  long,  were  pushing  from  the  base  of  a  small  limb  3  feet  above  the  cut. 
There  were  no  other  signs  of  disease  and  the  stump  was  sound.     The  foliage  upon 

*  On  September  20, 1889,  Mr.  J.  Frank  Wilson,  of  Still  Pond,  Maryland,  took  me  to  a 
tree  in  one  of  his  older  orchards,  No.  4  of  my  first  report,  which  then  appeared  to  be 
perfectly  healthy,  but  which  he  said  had  shown  unmistakable  symptoms  of  yellows 
in  the  fall  of  1888,  at  which  time  he  had  cut  away  all  but  one  small  limb.  At  the 
date  of  my  visit  this  limb  seemed  likely  to  grow  into  a  new  and  healthy  top.  This 
tree  was  reexamined  October  15,  1890,  and  found  to  be  so  badly  diseased  in  all  parts 
that  I  was  compelled  to  believe  that  it  had  not  been  free  from  disease  at  any  time 
since  1888,  although  it  developed  no  symptoms  in  the  season  of  1889. 

Several  cases  similar  to  this  one  have  come  under  my  observation,  but  usually  the 
period  of  immunity  has  been  shorter. 


EXCISIONS    AND    RESULTS.  31 

the  rest  of  the  tree  was  entirely  healthy.  The  peaches  were  numerous,  green,  and  nor- 
mal. 

May  13,  1889.  Apparently  still  diseased.  Some  puny-looking  sprouts  are  growing 
from  the  base  of  the  excised  limbs  and  from  the  trunk  under  them. 

September  17,  1889.  To  casual  observation  this  tree  is  as  healthy  as  No.  3,  but  I 
find  scars  on  the  stub  of  the  excised  limb  from  which  some  one  has  broken  shoots.  A 
search  in  the  weeds  under  the  tree  brings  to  light  several  dried  up  but  much-branched 
and  quite  characteristic  yellows  shoots,  which  correspond  to  the  scars  on  the  stub. 
There  are  no  present  indications  of  yellows,  but  unquestionably  the  tree  is  diseased. 
No  fruit  this  year. 

October  11,  1890.  Most  of  the  foliage  has  fallen,  probably  nineteen- twentieths. 
Some  of  it  is  redder  than  should  be.  It  is  not  yet  a  bad-looking  tree,  although  plainly 
diseased.  Winter  buds  are  now  germinating  on  half  a  dozen  shoots.  I  counted  four- 
teen on  one  not  over  a  foot  long. 

(5)  August  10,  1888.    Variety,  Reeves's  Favorite.    One  limb  was  removed  ;  one  was 
left.    The  excised  limb  bore  25  to  30  premature  peaches  distributed  on  two  branches. 
The  rest  of  the  limb  bore  many  sound,  green  peaches.     There  were  no  diseased 
sprouts,  and  the  foliage  of  the  entire  limb  was  full-grown,  and  of  a  healthy  green. 
The  limb  which  was  left  bore  green,  healthy  peaches  and  healthy  foliage. 

May  13,  1889.    Apparently  healthy. 

September  17,  1889.  There  are  now  slight  but  unquestionable  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease, i.  e.  a  half  dozen  feeble  shoots  on  the  trunk  and  limbs.  The  spring  foliage  is 
dark  green  ami  thrifty.  No  fruit. 

October  11,  1890.  The  tree  is  well  provided  with  good  foliage,  and  there  are  only 
a  few  diseased  shoots.  One  is  a  terminal  bud  which  has  grown  about  one-half  inch, 
developing  a  whorl  of  immature  leaves  now  2  to  3  inches  long.  Another  is  a  small, 
feeble  shoot  on  the  trunk. 

(6)  August  10,  1888.    Variety,  Reeves's  Favorite.    One  limb  was  removed  ;  one  was 
left.     The  excised  limb  tri-parted  a  short  distance  above  the  cut ;  two  of  the  three 
parts  bore  premature  peaches  upon  some  branches  and  green  ones  upon  others.  The 
third  fork  bore  only  green,  healthy  fruit.     The  foliage  of  this  tri-partite  limb  was 
full-grown,  green,  and  healthy.     There  were  no  diseased  shoots  and  the  stump  was 
sound.     The  remainder  of  the  tree  bore  green,  healthy  poaches,  and  excellent  foliage. 
There  was  no  least  sign  of  yellows. 

May  13,  1889.     Appears  to  be  diseased. 

September  17, 1889.  At  first  sight  this  tree  appears  to  be  as  healthy  as  No.  3.  The 
entire  foliage  is  vigorous  and  of  a  healthy  green.  Seven  lusty  shoots  have  grown 
out  of  the  trunk  just  below  the  excised  limb.  These  are  3  to  4  feet  long,  and  most 
are  one-half  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base.  All  look  healthy  and  bear  excellent  foli- 
age. However,  on  the  base  of  the  remaining  limb,  4  inches  from  the  cut,  there  is  a 
scar  easily  overlooked.  Some  one  wrenched  a  shoot  from  this  spot  in  the  summer. 
Search  in  the  weeds  under  the  tree  brings  it  to  light.  This  shoot  is  2£  feet  long  and 
branched  in  the  characteristic  manner.  There  is,  therefore,  no  doubt  that  the  tree 
is  still  affected,  although  at  present  it  shows  no  symptoms  of  disease.  No  fruit  this 
year. 

October  11,  1890.  Tree  much  like  No.  5.  There  is  an  abundance  of  good  foliage, 
but  upon  two  shoots  about  a  dozen  winter  buds  are  now  pushing. 

(7)  August  10,  1888.    Variety,  Beers's  Smock.     One  limb  was  removed.     This  limb 
biparted  just  above  the  cut.    On  one  fork  two  small  branches  bore  about  a  hundred 
red-spotted  peaches  which  were  ripe  or  nearly  ripe,  while  5  or  6  others  of  about  equal 
size  bore  only  green,  healthy  fruit.     The  other  fork  bore  nothing  but  healthy  peaches. 
There  were  no  diseased  shoots,  and  the  foliage  of  the  entire  limb  had  every  appear- 
ance of  health.    The  stump  was  sound.     The  rest  of  the  tree  seemed  healthy.    It 
bore  sound,  green  peaches,  and  full-grown,  green  foliage. 

May  13,  1889.  There  are  diseased  shoots  at  the  base  of  the  excised  limb.  A  few 
have  also  grown  from  the  base  of  the  adjoining  limb. 


32  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

September  17,  1889.  Still  diseased.  The  symptoms  are  confined  principally  to  the 
stump  of  the  excised  limb  and  to  one  other  limb,  the  top  of  which  was  cut  out  in  the 
spring  or  summer  daring  my  absence.  No  fruit  this  year. 

October  11,  1890.  Not  recovered  and  not  better  looking  than  other  diseased  trees 
in  the  same  orchard.  All  of  the  foliage  which  remains  is  unnaturally  rolled,  curled, 
red  and  yellow.  The  tree  bears  diseased  sprouts  and  some  of  its  winter  buds  are  now 
pushing. 

(8)  August  10,  1888.     Variety,  Christiana.     One  limb  was  removed;  three  were 
left.     The  excised  limb  biparted  8  inch.es  above  the  cut.     One  furk  bore  230  prema- 
ture peaches  and  only  a  few  healthy  green  ones.     On  the  lower  part,  pushing  from 
the  bark,  were  several  diseased  growths  each  only  about  one-half  inch  long.     One  of 
these  was  within  18  inches  of  the  cut.     The  spring  foliage  was  full-grown,  dark- 
green,  and  healthy.    The  winter  buds  were  dormant  and  there  were  no  other  indica- 
tions of  disease.     The  other  fork,  which  was  of  the  same  size  or  a  little  larger,  bore 
healthy  foliage  and  between  two  and  three  hundred  healthy,  green  peaches.    The 
limbs  which  remained  appeared  to  be  perfectly  healthy.     They  bore  only  green 
peaches  and  healthy-looking  foliage. 

May  13,  1889.  Apparently  still  diseased.  There  are  some  feeble  shoots  with  red- 
dish foliage  on  the  main  limbs  near  the  trunk. 

September  17,  1889.  The  symptoms  of  yellows  are  more  apparent  on  this  tree  than 
on  any  of  the  preceding  seven,  yet  the  tree  would  not  be  called  badly  diseased. 
There  is  no  fruit  to  judge  by,  but  the  spring  foliage  on  the  entire  tree  is  somewhat 
curled  and  yellowish.  There  are  also  a  number  of  feeble  shoots,  and  winter  buds  are 
now  germinating  in  a  number  of  places  upon  both  the  main  branches  of  a  limb  oppo- 
site to  the  one  which  was  excised. 

October  11,  1890.  Most  of  the  foliage  has  fallen;  what  remains  is  unnaturally  rolled, 
curled,  and  red.  The  tree  is  rather  twiggy  from  last  year's  diseased  shoots  now 
dead.  On  one  branch  and  on  one  stem-shoot,  the  winter  buds  are  now  germinating. 
Not  many  diseased  sprouts  appeared  this  year  and  the  tree  has  made  a  fair  growth. 

(9)  August  10,  1888.    Variety,  Old  Mixon.    One  limb  was  removed  ;  two  limbs  were 
left.    The  excised  limb  biparted  14  inches  above  the  cut.    The  larger  fork  bore  100 
to  '200  healthy,  green  peaches ;  the  smaller  fork  bore  about  one-half  as  many  prema- 
ture peaches,  but  also  some  green  ones  on  tie  top  branches.    A  few  sprouts  near  the 
base  of  the  smaller  fork  are  not  quite  healthy,  and  the  smallest,  which  is  only  about 
one-half  inch  long,  is  not  over  2  feet  above  the  cut.     The  stump  was  sound,  and 
the  spring  foliage  on  the  entire  limb  was  full-grown  and  healthy.    The  peaches  and 
foliage  on  the  remaining  limbs  were  perfectly  healthy  in  appearance. 

May  13,  1889.  Signs  of  disease  are  now  visible  on  the  trunk  just  below  the  stump 
of  the  excised  limb. 

September  17,  1889.  Still  diseased.  A  tuft  of  yellowish,  much-branched,  feeble 
sprouts  has  grown  from  the  stub  of  the  excised  limb.  One  of  the  main  limbs  bears 
diseased  growths  at  its  base,  6  feet  above,  and  on  the  extremities  of  several 
branches,  at  a  distance  of  over  10  feet  from  the  trunk.  The  other  main  limb  looks 
healthy,  except  that  the  terminal  buds  on  two  thrifty  "  watershoots"  began  to  grow 
in  August,  something  very  unusual  in  healthy  peach  trees  in  this  climate,  although 
not  uncommon  in  Georgia  in  midsummer.  The  spring  foliage  on  both  limbs  con- 
tinues to  look  healthy. 

October  11,  1890.  Most  of  the  foliage  has  fallen.  The  remainder  is  unnaturally 
reddish.  Terminal  buds  pushed  some  time  ago  in  the  top  of  the  tree,  and  several 
lusty  stem-shoots  are  now  full  of  germinating  buds. 

(10)  August  10,  18&8.     Variety,  Keeves's  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed.     It 


EXCISIONS    AND    RESULTS.  33 

bore  20  to  30  green  peaches  and  about  the  same  nurubei  of  fully-ripe  ones,*  but  none  of 
the  latter  were  within  10  feet  of  the  cut.  There  were  no  diseased  sprouts  or  ger- 
minating winter  buds.  The  foliage  was  full  grown  and  entirely  healthy.  The 
remaining  limbs  bore  healthy  peaches  and  excellent  foliage.  One  small  shoot,  how- 
ever, on  the  base  of  the  east  branch,  did  not  appear  quite  right,  yet  I  could  not  say 
it  was  affected  by  yellows.  It  was  14  inches  long  and  unbranched.  The  leaves 
were  somewhat  paler  than  normal  and  were  attacked  by  a  shot-hole  fungus,  which 
is  quite  common  on  the  leaves  of  diseased  trees. 

May  13,  1889.  The  enlire  top  was  blown  away  by  a  tornado  which  occurred  soon 
after  the  excision,  but  the  stubs  of  the  limbs  appear  to  be  diseased. 

September  17, 1889.  Numerous  yellowish,  much-branched,  feeble,  spindling  shoots 
have  grown  from  the  stub. 

October  11,  1890.  The  trunk  is  now  dead. 

(11)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Reeves'  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed.     This 
subdivided  2$  feet  above  the  cut  into  four  branches,  three  of  which  bore  a  few 
large,  ripe  peaches,  while  the  fourth  bore  about  twenty  green  ones.    The  proper  time 
for  the  ripening  of  this  variety  in  that  orchard  is  August  20.    The  foliage  was  full 
grown  and  healthy  looking,  and  there  were  no  diseased  shoots  either  from  winter 
buds  or  obscure  buds.t    The  stump  was  sound.     The  remaining  limbs  bore  healthy, 
green  peaches  and  excellent  foliage.     There  was  no  sign  of  yellows. 

May  13,  1889.  The  entire  top  was  blown  away  by  the  tornado.  There  are  no  vigor- 
ous shoots  on  the  trunk  or  stubs  of  the  limbs,  but  only  three  or  four  buds  pushing 
feebly  and  two  small,  dried-up  shoots.  The  stump  looks  nearly  dead,  but  this  is 
probably  due  in  part  to  the  effect  of  the  wind. 

September  17,  1889.  Dead.    No  growth  of  any  sort  since  spring. 

(12)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Reeves'  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed.     This 
bore  about  twenty  large,  showy,  ripe  peaches,  and  about  the  same  number  of  much 
smaller  green  ones— all  of  the  latter  upon   one  branch.    There  were  no  diseased 
shoots;  the  foliage  was  healthy;  and  the  stump  was  sound.    The  remaining  limbs 
appeared  to  be  healthy.    They  bore  green  peaches-and  vigorous  foliage. 

May  13, 1889.  Doubtful ;  a  feeble  shoot  is  pushing  just  beneath  the  stub  of  the  ex- 
cised limb. 

September  17,  1889.  The  tree  is  diseased,  but  the  symptoms  are  slight  and  confined 
to  the  trunk.  There  is  a  diseased  shoot  6  inches  below  the  excision,  and  another 
stouter  one  on  the  margin  of  the  cut.  The  winter  buds  upon  the  latter  are  now 
germinating.  The  foliage  of  the  entire  top  looks  healthy  and  is  vigorous  for  the 
time  of  year.  Had  these  two  shoots  been  removed  prior  to  examination,  or  had  they 
never  grown,  any  one  would  have  pronounced  the  tree  entirely  healthy. 

October  11,  1890.  Still  diseased.  Most  of  the  foliage  has  fallen ;  what  remains  is 
abnormally  reddish.  Numerous  winter  buds  are  now  germinating  upon  two  shoots. 

*The  premature  peaches  on  this  tree,  like  those  on  all  the  others,  were  large  and 
showy;  the  skin  was  red-spotted  and  high  colored  ;  the  flesh  was  also  much  streaked 
and  spotted  with  bright  red.  Many  of  these  spots  were  to  be  seen  on  radial  as  well  as 
tangential  sections.  They  were  about  one-sixteenth  inch  in  diameter,  and  were  not 
confined  to  the  nbro-vascular  system,  but  formed  part  of  the  ordinary  parenchyma 
of  the  fruit.  The  streaks  of  color  were  limited  principally  to  radial  sections,  but  did 
not  extend  from  from  pit  to  skin.  Some  of  these  peaches  tasted  very  well ;  others 
were  insipid  or  sickish.  Sometimes,  even,  one-half  ot  a  peach  tasted  well  and  the 
remainder  was  not  palatable. 

t  Upon  the  diseased  trees  in  this  orchard  there  were  fewer  yellows  shoots  in  1888 
than  in  1887.  This  was  also  true  for  all  the  other  orchards  in  that  region.  It  was 
correlated  with  dry  weather,  which  also  had  its  effect  upon  the  total  growth.  At 
least,  in  this  orchard,  where  I  examined  most  particularly,  the  healthy  terminal 
growths  of  1888  were  considerably  shorter  than  those  of  1887.  There  have  been 
rather  more  cases,  however,  in  the  dry  seasons  than  in  the  wet  ones. 
1609— Bull.  1 3 


34  PEACH   YELLOWS. 

(13)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Reeves'  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed;   two 
limbs  were  left.    The  excised  limb  bore  about  a  dozen  large,  ripe  peaches  and  more 
than  one  hundred  green  ones.    There  were  no  diseased  shoots;  the  foliage  was  full 
grown  and  vigorous  and  the  stump  was  sound.     The  remaining  limbs  bore  healthy, 
green  peaches  and  excellent  foliage. 

May  13,  1889.  Apparently  diseased,  i.  e.}  there  are  a  few  feeble  shoots  on  the  trunk, 
but  it  is  too  early  in  the  growing  season  to  decide  positively.  One  large  limb  was 
blown  away  by  the  tornado. 

September  17,  1889.  Still  diseased.  There  are  a  few  sickly  shoots  on  the  base  of 
the  trunk  below  the  excision,  but  some  robust,  healthy-looking  shoots  also  grow  from 
the  vicinity.  Diseased  shoots  also  grow  from  beneath  the  base  of  the  limb  which 
was  blown  away  by  the  tornado.  The  crown  of  the  tree  still  bears  full-grown,  dark- 
green  foliage,  but  on  one  branch  some  of  it  curls  and  droops  a  little.  There  are  no 
other  signs  of  disease.  No  fruit  this  year. 

October  11,  1890.  The  tree  is  well  provided  with  good-looking  foliage,  but  diseased 
sprouts  have  grown  from  the  base  of  the  trunk,  and  many  winter  buds  are  now  ger- 
minating. No  fruit. 

(14)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Old  Mixon.     Two  limbs  were  removed,  i.e.,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  top ;  and  two  were  left.     One  of  the  excised  limbs  was  loaded 
with  peaches  which  were  ripe,  and  red-spotted  on  the  skin  and  in  the  flesh.     The 
other  limb  bi parted  one  foot  above  the  cut.     The  larger  fork  was  loaded  with  ripe 
peaches;  the  smaller  one  bore  many  green  peaches  and  only  a  few  premature  ones. 
This  smaller  fork  had  lost  a  branch  and  was  dozy  at  the  heart  from  that  point  down- 
ward for  a  distance  of  3  feet,  rain  having  entered.     One  stump  was  sound ;  the  other 
showed  two  small  dozy  spots  in  the  center,  the  result  of  the  downward  movement  of 
the  decay  which  began  at  the  base  of  the  broken  branch.     There  were  no  diseased 
shoots  and  the  foliage  was  healthy.     The  remaining  limbs  were  healthy,  i.  e.,  seemed 
to  be.     The  peaches  were  green,  and  the  foliage  was  excellent.     I  mention  condition 
of  stumps  because  yellows  has  been  attributed  to  injuries.     In  this  connection  it  may 
be  noted  that  these  trees  were  covered  with  smooth,  sound  bark  and  were  very  free 
from  injuries  of  any  sort  on  any  part,  limbs,  trunk,  or  roots.     The  entire  orchard  has 
escaped  the  attacks  of  the  borer  (^Egeria)  to  a  remarkable  degree.     Most  of  the  trees 
used  in  this  experiment  were  entirely  free  from  them  and  hud  always  been  so  while 
none  of  them  had  been  seriously  injured.     Possibly  the  character  of  the  soil  has  had 
something  to  do  with  this  immunity.    I  find  this  insect  most  troublesome  upon  sandy 
or  friable  soils.     On  the  light  sands  of  Sussex  and  Caroline  Counties  the  borers  have 
to  be  removed  onco  a  year  and  sometimes  twice.     Otherwise  the  orchards  would  soon 
be  destroyed. 

May  13,  1889.  Apparently  still  diseased.  The  suspicious  appearances  are  upon  the 
trunk  near  where  the  limbs  were  removed. 

September  17,  1889.  Still  diseased.  Six  inches  below  the  lowest  excision  there  is 
a  feeble,  much-branched  yellows  shoot.  The  smaller  limb  was  blown  away  by  the 
tornado.  The  remaining  limb  is  now  plainly  diseased.  Its  spring  foliage  is  full 
grown,  but  lighter  green  than  should  be,  and  is  somewhat  inclined  to  droop  and  curl. 
There  are  also  well-marked,  feeble  yellows  shoots  on  several  branches  at  distances  of 
8  to  10  feet  from  the  excision.  No  fruit. 

October  11, 1890.  Most  of  the  foliage  has  fallen;  what  remains  is  abnormally  reddish. 
The  tree  is  twiggy,  and  there  are  signs  of  disease  in  the  top.  One  stem  shoot  also 
bears  fifteen  buds,  which  have  germinated  recently.  No  fruit  this  year. 

(15)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Christiana.    Two  limbs  were  removed,  both  from 
one  side ;  one  limb  was  left.     Nearly  all  of  the  fruit  on  both  of  the  excised  limbs  was 
premature  ;  on  both  limbs  3  feet  above  the  cut  diseased  shoots  had  pushed  through 
the  rough  bark,  but  were  only  from  one-half  inch  to  2  inches  long.     On  one  of  the 
limbs  at  the  same  height  there  were  also  stout,  healthy-looking  shoots  of  this  season's 
growth.     The  other  limb  bore  an  additional  15  or  20  feeble  shoots  5  to  8  feet  above  the 


EXCISIONS    AND   RESULTS.  35 

cut.  These  were  1  or  2  inches  long  and  bad  also  developed  from  obscure  buds  buried 
iu  the  bark  or  formed  in  the  cambium.  The  stumps  were  sound  and  the  spring  foliage 
was  healthy.  The  remaining  limb  bore  green  peaches  and  healthy  foliage,  but  I  had 
little  hope  of  saving  it,  owing  to  the  number  of  branches  which  manifested  symp- 
toms. ' . 

May  13,  1889.  Apparently  still  diseased.  A  number  of  feeble  shoots  are  pushing  on 
the  base  of  the  limbs. 

September  17,  1889.  Still  diseased.  Half  a  dozen  lusty  shoots  have  grown  from  the 
the  base  of  the  remaining  limb,  and  three  of  these  are  mu^h  branched,  feeble  at  the 
extremities,  and  badly  diseased.  The  leaves  upon  the  crown  of  the  tree  are  of  normal 
size  and  color,  but  are  somewhat  curled. 

October  11,  1890.  The  spring  foliage  is  of  good  size,  but  it  is  unnaturally  rolled 
and  curled,  reddish  and  yellowish-green  and  unhealthy  looking.  The  winter  buds 
are  germinating  upon  four  different  shoots,  in  the  same  manner  as  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
Plate  in. 

(16)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Old  Mixon.     Two  limbs  were  removed,  both  on  one 
side.    Each  of  the  excised  limbs  bore  a  few  high-colored,  red- spotted  peaches,  and  a 
much  larger  number  of  green  ones.     About  4£  feet  above  the  cut  one  branch  bore  a 
few  small  unbranched,  but  diseased  sprouts.     There  were  no  others  on  the  tree.    The 
stumps  were  sound.     The  remaining  limbs  bore  many  green  peaches  and  excellent 
foliage.    There  was  no  trace  of  yellows. 

May  13,  1889.  Apparently  still  diseased.  The  suspicious  shoots  are  on  the  base  of 
the  main  limbs. 

September  17,  1889.  The  tree  is  still  diseased,  and  in  all  parts.  Numerous,  branched, 
feeble  shoots  have  grown  from  the  trunk  and  from  the  stubs  of  both  excised  limbs. 
These  feeble  shoots  also  occur  on  all  of  the  larger  branches  and  even  iu  the  top  of  the 
tree.  The  spring  foliage  is  curled  and  yellow.  This  tree  is  much  worse  than  any  yet 
examined.  No  fruit  this  year. 

October  11,  1890.  Nineteen-twentieths  of  the  foliage  has  fallen;  what  remains  is 
rolled,  curled,  and  very  red.  The  winter  buds  are  now  germinating  on  a  dozen  dif- 
ferent shoots.  No  fruit  in  1890. 

(17)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Reeves'  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed.    This 
biparted  10  inches  above  the  cut.     The  larger  fork  bore  healthy,  green  peaches  and 
the  smaller  one  bore  20  to  30  ripe  peaches,  which,  however,  were  confined  to  two  small 
branches.     There  were  no  diseased  shoots.     The  stump  was  sound  and  the  foliage 
was  luxuriant.     The  remaining  limbs  were  loaded  with  greeii  peaches  and  the  foliage 
was  like  that  of  the  excised  limb. 

May  13,  1889.  The  entire  top  was  blown  away  by  the  tornado  of  Aug.  21, 1888. 
Apparently,  the  stubs  of  the  limbs  are  still  diseased. 

September  17,  1889.  Branched,  diseased  growths  now  cover  the  whole  upper  part 
of  the  trunk.  They  have  grown  from  the  stubs  of  each  limb,  and  also  very  abundantly 
from  several  places  on  the  body  below  the  excision.  On  the  trunk  they  are  very  wiry 
and  feeble. 

October  11,  1890.  This  stub  is  trying  hard  to  live.  It  now  bears  thrifty  shoots, 
provided  with  an  abundance  of  foliage  of  normal  size  and  nearly  natural  color,  which 
is  now  yellowing  and  nearly  ready  to  fall.  But  it  also  bears  a  half-dozen  spindling, 
sickly,  branched  shoots,  and  winter  buds  are  now  pushing  on  a  number  of  others. 

(18)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Reeves's  Favorite.     One  small  limb  was  removed ; 
two  larger  ones  were  left.    The  excised  limb  bore  ripe  and  nearly  ripe  peaches  on 
many  branches,  and  bore  no  green  fruit.    There  were  some  small,  diseased  shoots 
well  out  upon  one  branch,  and  a  feeble  shoot  one-fourth  inch  long  had  developed 
from  an  obscure  bud  and  pushed  through  the  bark  only  1  inch  above  the  cut.     This 
was  not  discovered  in  time  or  the  tree  would  have  been  rejected.     The  spring  foliage 
was  full  grown,  but  in  places  it  began  to  look  yellowish.    The  stump  was  sound. 
The  remainder  of  the  tree  was  full  of  green  peaches  and  healthy  foliage. 

OF  TH1 


36  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

May  13,  1889.  Doubtful.  A  few  feeble  shoots  are  growing  on  the  trunk  below  the 
stub  of  the  excised  limb,  and  on  the  base  of  another  limb. 

September  17,  1889.  Symptoms  of  yellows  are  now  present.  From  the  stub  of  the 
excised  limb  have  grown  two  much-branched,  feeble  shoots  upon  which  winter  buds 
are  now  germinating.  Such  a  shoot  has  grown  also  from  the  trunk,  14  inches  below 
the  cut.  There  is  also  a  small,  diseased  shoot  on  the  base  of  a  main  limb,  12  inches 
above  the  excision.  Otherwise  the  tree  appears  to  be  healthy.  There  was  no  fruit 
this  year. 

October  11,  1890.  The  foliage  is  abnormally  reddish,  and  the  winter  buds  are  now 
germinating  upon  two  large  shoots,  which  have  grown  from  the  base  of  the  main 
limbs.  No  fruit  in  1890. 

(19)  August  10,  1888.  Variety,  Keeves's  Favorite.     One  limb  was  removed.     Two 
small  branches  bore  ripe,  red-spotted  fruit.     These  branches  joined  the  main  limb 
about  8  feet  above  the  cut.     Six  other  branches  of  about  the  same  size  bore  green 
peaches.     The  entire  limb  bore  full-grown,  dark-green  foliage ;  and  there  were  no 
diseased  shoots.    The  stump  was  sound.     The  remaining  limbs  bore  healthy,  green 
peaches  and  excellent  foliage. 

May  13,  1889.  There  are  a  few  sprouts  of  uncertain  character  on  the  stub  of  the 
excised  limb.  Otherwise  the  tree  appears  to  be  healthy. 

September  17, 1889.  The  top  bears  good  foliage  and  looks  healthy,  but  several 
branched  and  feeble  diseased  shoots  have  grown  from  the  stub  of  the  excised  limb. 
There  is  no  fruit,  and  I  can  find  no  certain  indications  of  disease  on  any  other  part  of 
the  tree. 

October  11, 1890.  For  the  time  of  year  there  is  more  than  the  usual  amount  of  foli- 
age on  this  tree,  and  it  is  of  better  size  and  color,  and  less  curled  than  on  many  of  the 
trees.  However,  several  terminal  buds  have  pushed  in  the  top  of  the  tree,  and  win- 
ter buds  are  now  germinating  on  six  different  shoots  which  have  grown  from  the 
base  of  the  main  limbs.  One  of  these  shoots  pushed  twenty-eight  buds  in  late  sum- 
mer or  early  fall.  These  made  a  spindling  growth  of  2  to  4  inches,  and  are  now  dead. 
On  the  same  shoot  sixteen  additional  buds  are  now  germinating.  There  was  no  fruit 
in  1890. 

(20)  August  10, 1888.  Variety,  Old  Mixon.     One  limb  was  removed  ;  three  limbs 
were  left.     The  excised  limb  bore  premature  peaches  on  nearly  every  branch.     One 
diseased  shoot,  one-eighth  inch  long,  was  pushing  through  the  bark  about  2  feet  above 
the  cut,  and  a  half  dozen  others,  one-eighth  inch  to  1  inch  long,  were  visible  higher 
up.     There  were  no  others,  and  the  spring  foliage  was  healthy.     The  remaining  limbs 
were  full  of  healthy  foliage  and  green  peaches,  which  Mr.  Price  said  ought  to  ripen 
from  9  to  12  days  later. 

May  13, 1889.  Doubtful.  There  are  some  indications  of  disease  near  the  stub  of 
the  excised  limb. 

September  17, 1889.  The  tree  is  now  badly  diseased.  A  half  dozen  rank-growing 
branched  yellows  shoots  have  pushed  from  the  trunk  below  the  excision  and  from  the 
base  of  the  limbs  above  it.  Feeble  yellows  shoots  are  abundant  on  both  main 
branches  of  one  limb  all  the  way  to  the  ends  of  the  twigs  in  the  top  of  the  tree,  i.  e., 
12  feet  above  the  excision.  The  spring  foliage  on  this  limb  is  also  dwarfed,  curled, 
and  yellowish.  On  another  limb  the  spring  foliage  is  normal,  but  there  is  a  diseased 
shoot  at  its  base,  and  another  about  3_feet  up.  The  third  limb  appears  to  be  entirely 
healthy.  No  fruit. 

October  11, 1890.  The  foliage  is  very  red  and  unhealthy  looking,  and  sickly  shoots 
have  grown  not  only  in  the  top  of  the  tree  but  also  next  to  the  roots  and  on  the  base 
of  the  limbs ;  and  winter  buds  are  now  germinating.  The  tree  bore  no  fruit  this 
year. 

This  closes  the  excision  experiments.  The  results  varied  considerably, 
but  in  no  case  did  the  removal  of  affected  parts  stop  the  progress  of  the 


CONCLUSION   FROM    EXCISIONS.  37 

disease.  The  symptoms  appeared  again  the  following  season  in  all  but 
two  of  the  trees,  and  in  these  two  they  came  back  the  second  season. 
Even  when  the  entire  top  was  removed,  as  by  the  tornado  in  G  17,  the 
disease  quickly  reappeared. 

The  inference  that  the  disease  was  really  cut  out  and  that  all  these 
cases  are  reinfections  is  inadmissible,  because  nothing  of  a  similar 
nature  occurred  elsewhere  in  the  orchards.  To  establish  this  we  have 
only  to  trace  the  history  of  these  trees  for  1  year  from  the  date  of  the 
excisions,  and  to  compare  that  with  the  history  for  a  similar  period  of 
other  trees  in  each  orchard,  i.  e.,  those  which  were  healthy  when  the 
excisions  were  made. 

In  Mr.  Greene's  orchard  100  per  cent  of  the  excised  trees  showed  fresh 
symptoms  of  the  disease  in  1888,  but  only  about  12  per  cent  of  the 
others  became  affected ;  L  e.,  the  new  cases  in  1888  amounted  to  only 
12  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  healthy  trees.  In  Mr.  Harper's 
orchard  95  per  cent  of  the  excised  trees  showed  fresh  symptoms  of  the 
disease  in  1889,  but  only  about  2  per  cent  of  the  others  became  affected. 
Most  of  the  excisions  were  made  in  these  two  orchards,  and  no  record  of 
cases  in  the  other  orchards  was  kept  for  comparison. 

In  a  few  instances  I  have  known  50  per  cent  of  the  trees  of  an  orchard 
to  become  affected  with  yellows  in  1  year,  but  never  100  per  cent,  and 
very  rarely  more  than  15  to  25  per  cent,  even  in  the  worst  affected  dis- 
tricts. It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  disease  persisted  in  these 
trees,  i.  e.,  that  the  symptoms  subsequent  to  the  excisions  were  not  the 
result  of  reinfection. 

It  remains  to  ask  whether  the  excisions  exerted  any  retarding  in- 
fluence. One  year  from  the  date  of  the  excisions  the  trees  in  Mr.  Har- 
per's orchard  were  freer  from  symptoms  of  yellows  than  had  been  those 
in  Mr.  Greene's  orchard  (Experiment  B),  and  the  same  relative  differ- 
ence was  apparent  at  the  end  of  the  second  year.  It  might  not  be 
proper,  however,  to  draw  the  inference  that  the  development  of  the 
disease  was  slower  on  account  of  the  excisions.  There  is  some  doubt  as 
to  whether  the  excisions  retarded  the  progress  of  the  disease,  for  the 
following  reasons  :  (1)  The  trees  manifested  only  very  slight  symptoms 
to  begin  with,  i.  e.,  much  slighter  than  the  trees  in  Mr.  Greene's  orchard  j 
(2)  They  bore  no  fruit  in  1889  or  1890,  whereas  the  trees  in  Mr. 
Greene's  orchard  experienced  the  strain  of  a  large  crop  in  1888,  and  of 
a  partial  one  in  1889 ;  (3)  The  natural  progress  of  this  disease  is  some- 
times very  slow,  requiring  a  third  season  for  the  development  of  the 
symptoms  in  all  parts  of  the  tree.  It  is  therefore  not  impossible  that 
the  disease  might  have  progressed  in  these  particular  trees  with  the 
same  slowness,  had  no  limbs  been  removed.  The  most  that  can  be 
said  is  that  the  severest  excisions,  e.  #.,  those  in  Mr.  Harper's  orchard, 
appeared  to  exert  a  retarding  influence  on  the  progress  of  the  disease. 

Of  course,  the  results  obtained  do  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  cut- 
ting out  the  disease  in  some  cases.  The  evidence  to  the  contrary  is, 
however,  reasonably  conclusive,  and  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes. 


.    7 

38  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

The  experiments  also  throw  considerable  light  upon  the  nature  of 
the  disease  but  do  not  settle  the  question  as  to  whether  the  disease  is 
latent  in  the  whole  tree  when  symptoms  appear  in  any  part  of  it.  This 
will  require  additional  experiments  of  another  kind. 

IV.— OBSERVATIONS  AND    EXPERIMENTS  BEARING   UPON  IMMU- 
NITY. 

(1)  The  question  of  immunity  is  a  very  important  one.     If  we  could 
somewhere  find  peach  trees  hardy  enough  to  resist  this  disease,  a  great 
practical  problem  would  be  solved.    It  has  been  said  that  seedlings  are 
much  less  subject  to  yellows  than  budded  trees.    In  the  localities  where 
I  have  studied  this  disease  seedling  orchards  are  infrequent,  but  from 
what  data  I  have  been  able  to  gather  I  should  say  that  seedling  trees 
derived  from  budded  fruit  are  equally  subject. 

On  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  peninsula  the  belief  is  also  pretty 
general  that  budded  trees  imported  into  diseased  districts  from  healthy 
localities  are  as  much  subject  to  yellows  as  those  grown  at  home,  or  at 
least  do  not  escape  the  disease.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  been  told 
by  growers  that  they  have  had  little  trouble  from  yellows  since  they 
have  formed  the  practice  of  selecting  their  own  buds  and  stocks.  The 
well-known  habit  of  certain  nurserymen  to  buy  trees  wherever  they 
can,  and  sell  them  again  as  their  own  stock,  obscures  what  would 
otherwise  be  a  somewhat  simple  problem.  In  many  cases  in  studying 
orchards  it  has  been  difficult  to  determine  the  origin  of  the  stocks, 
and  impossible  to  learn  anything  about  the  location  or  character  of 
the  trees  from  which  the  buds  were  taken.  Because  nursery  stock 
was  grown  in  a  locality  free  from  yellows  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
the  buds  came  from  the  same  locality.  Buds  are  often  procured  directly 
from  a  distance,  or  are  taken  from  young  trees  recently  introduced  into 
a  neighborhood.  In  case  of  new  varieties,  I  have  several  times  known 
trees  to  be  propagated  from  young  trees  recently  introduced  from 
localities  where  this  disease  is  very  prevalent.  In  buying  trees  much 
depends  upon  the  integrity  of  the  nurseryman,  which  is  often  an  un- 
known factor  and  sometimes  a  negative  quantity. 

The  fact  that  growers  in  the  diseased  districts  have  bought  trees 
from  a  good  many  nurserymen  with  pretty  much  the  same  results  is 
tolerably  strong  evidence,  although  not  entirely  conclusive. 

A  knowledge  of  these  facts  led  me  to  plan  an  experiment  in  which 
I  should  know  in  advance  the  character  of  the  stocks  and  the  buds, 
and  be  able  to  watch  the  behavior  of  the  parent  trees  as  well  as  the 
progeny  so  long  as  might  be  necessary. 

(2)  EXPERIMENT  1. — The  trees  for  this  series  of  inoculations  were 
1,000  Mariana  plums  rooted  by  J.  W.  Kerr,  at  Denton,  Maryland,  in  the 
spring  of  1888  from  cuttings  made  in  his  own  orchards.     They  were 
divided  into  five  lots  and  inoculated  in  August,  1888,  with  buds  taken 
from  five  healthy  peach  trees  also  in  Mr.  Kerr's  own  orchards.    These 


IMMUNITY PEACH    ON   PLUM.  39 

five  trees  were  carefully  located  and  have  been  under  observation  ever 
since.  I  examined  them  particularly  May  23,  1890,  making  the  follow- 
ing memoranda : 

The  character  of  the  trees  from  which  carae  the  buds  used  in  working  the  peach  on 
plum  roots  is  as  follows,  all  of  the  buds  of  one  variety  having  been  taken  from  one 
tree  : 

(1)  Old  Mixon. — Exact  origin  unknown  ;  set  out  by  T.  A.  Smith,  of  Deiiton;  age, 
38  years;  entirely  free  from  yellows;  foliage  of  a  healthy  green. 

(2)  Crawford's  Early. — Budded  by  Mr.  Kerr  from  a  bearing  tree  in  Caroline  County; 
set  in  1874;  entirely  free  from  yellows  ;  foliage  vigorous. 

(3)  Mountain  Rose.— Budded  by  Mr.  Kerr  from  a  bearing  tree!   n  Caroline  County  ; 
set  in  1876  ;  entirely  free  from  yellows;  foliage  vigorous. 

(4)  Crawforffs  Late.— Budded  by  Mr.  Kerr  from  a  bearing  tree  in  Caroline  County ; 
set  in  1876  ;  entirely  free  from  yellows;  foliage  vigorous. 

(5)  Beers''  Smock. — Budded  by  Mr.  Kerr  from  a  bearing  tree  in   Caroline  County, 
set  in  1876  ;  entirely  free  from  yellows  ;  foliage  vigorous. 

These  trees  are  old  and  broken,  but  they  are  not  diseased. 

The  entire  orchard  was  examined  at  that  time.  It  contains  about 
500  trees.  They  remind  me  of  trees  in  the  old  orchards  at  Seaford? 
Delaware.  Like  them  they  suffered  severely  during  the  winter  of 
1881-'82,  *  and  are  rough,  broken,  shaggy  with  lichens,  and  frequently 
two-thirds  dead.  Here  and  there  a  tree  is  missing.  Others  have  lost 
their  entire  top,  healthy  growths  from  the  trunk  having  partially  taken 
its  place.  The  foliage  on  all  was  green  and  thrifty.  There  were  no 
cases  of  yellows  and  no  suspicious  trees.  All  of  the  younger  orchards 
on  the  same  farm  were  likewise  examined  with  a  similar  result. 

This  experiment  is  the  only  one  in  which  I  did  not  superintend  the 
inoculations  personally.  At  that  time  other  duties  engaged  my  atten- 
tion, and  having  entire  confidence  in  Mr.  Kerr,  I  trusted  it  entirely  to 
him,  being  assured  that  all  the  details  would  receive  his  personal  at- 
ention. 

Yellows  has  never  appeared  in  any  orchard  on  his  farm,  or  in  any  on 
the  adjoining  farms ;  was  not  reported  from  Caroline  County  until  1887 
is  still  rare  in  that  county ;  and  is  not  certainly  known  to  occur  any 
where  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Dentou.  If  cases  do  exist  at  Den- 
ton,  they  must  be  sporadic  antf  rare.  Otherwise  I  must  have  seen  them 
or  heard  of  them.  Such  being  the  conditions,  I  could  at  the  date  of 
these  inoculations  think  of  no  place  where  one  would  be  more  likely  to 
secure  buds  free  from  any  taint  of  yellows. 

A  hailstorm  in  June,  1889,  destroyed  the  tops  of  many  of  these  trees. 
The  remainder  were  removed  from  the  nursery  in  November  of  that 

*  The  severity  of  that  winter  killed  the  dormant  peach  buds  in  Caroline  County, 
Maryland, — a  thing  never  known  before  or  since.  It  also  injured  the  wood  of  many 
limbs.  The  same  injuries  occurred  at  Seaford,  Delaware.  However  at  neither  place 
did  yellows  supervene,  and  the  belief  that  this  disease  is  due  to  autumn  frosts  or 
severe  winters  is  wholly  untenable.  There  is  not  one  fact  offered  in  support  of  this 
view  which  may  not  be  explained  equally  well  in  other  ways. 


40  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

year,  and  were  planted  in  three  badly  affected  orchards  farther  up  the 
peninsula. 

(a)  The  trees  which  went  to  James  W.  Greeii,  Magnolia,  Delaware, 
were  set  in  the  southwest  corner  of  an  orchard  on  his  home  farm,  No. 
14,  map  iv,  of  my  first  report.     Yellows  appeared  in  this  orchard  in 
1886  and  has  been  very  destructive,  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  trees 
having  become  affected.   Thedisease  is  also  very  prevalent  in  neighboring 
orchards,  including  a  younger  one  on  the  same  farm.     The  spot  selected 
was  specially  adapted  to  the  experiment,  because  the  disease  first  ap- 
peared in  that  part  of  the  orchard,  and  speedily  involved  many  trees. 
In  1889  this  corner  of  the  orchard  contained  very  few  healthy  trees, 
but  none  had  been  dug  out,  and  none  were  entirely  dead.    The  diseased 
trees  were  removed  in  March,  1890,  and  the  land  then  received  a  heavy 
dressing  of  barnyard  manure,  i.  e.,  over  100  loads.     The  young  trees, 
which  had  been  trenched  in  over  winter,  were  then  set  in  the  spots  pre- 
viously occupied  by  the  affected  trees,  each  being  given  a  handful  of 
phosphate.    One  hundred   and  thirty-six  trees  were  sent  to  Mr.  Green 
(94  Beers'  Smock  and  42  Old  Mixon),  but  only  124  were  set.   Some  were 
quite  small,  but  all  were  healthy.    The  Smock  trees  were  planted  next 
the  highway. 

These  trees  were  under  observation  from  time  to  time  during  the 
growing  season  and  were  critically  examined  September  18, 1890.  Only 
47  had  made  a  satisfactory  growth.  Of  the  remainder,  24  were  dead 
and  53  were  dwarfed  and  yellowish  as  though  suffering  from  defective 
nutrition.  None,  however,  showed  any  signs  of  yellows.  These  trees 
received  good  cultivation,  were  not  shaded,  and  did  not  appear  to  be 
suffering  from  root  aphides*  They  had  been  set  very  deep,  and  1 
was  at  a  loss  to  account  tor  the  appearance  of  the  sickly  ones,  unless 
this  might  have  to  do  with  it.  Later,  I  discovered  that  in  all  of  the 
dwarfed  and  yellowish  trees  the  tops  had  overgrown  the  stocks,  and 
that  in  all  the  vigorous  trees  the  growth  of  the  stocks  had  kept  even 
pace  with  that  of  the  tops.  The  dead  trees  were  killed  in  spring  by  the 
black  peach  aphis,  which  sapped  and  smothered  the  tender  shoots. 

(b)  The  trees  which  went  to  F.  H.  Harper,  Still  Pond,  Maryland, 
were  planted  in  the  east  end  of  one  of  his  orchards  on  the  Howard  farm, 
No.  6,  map  n,  of  my  first  report,  in  places  made  vacant  by  the  removal 
of  diseased  trees.    This  orchard  also  appeared  to  be  a  good  place  to  try 
the  resisting  power  of  healthy  trees.    Yellows  first  developed  in  1886 
and  is  still  present,  the  cases  having  amounted  to  over  25  per  cent  of 
all  the  trees.    The  disease  is  also  very  prevelant  in  other  orchards  in 
the  vicinity,  including  a  younger  one  on  the  same  farm. 

Mr.  Harper  received  125  trees — 50  Mountain  Eose  and  75  Crawford's 
Late.  All  were  healthy,  of  medium  size,  and  in  good  condition  for 
planting.  Part  of  them  were  set  in  November  and  the  remainder  in 
early  spring.  In  some  cases  the  diseased  trees  were  removed  just  pre- 
vious to  this  planting ;  in  others,  they  had  been  out  for  a  year  or  two. 


IMMUNITY PEACH    ON    PLUM.  41 

The  peach  upon  plum  were  not  set  in  a  body,  but  were  scattered  among 
the  large  trees. 

I  saw  them  the  last  of  May,  1890,  at  which  date  they  looked  more 
promising  than  either  of  the  other  plantations.  They  were  reexamined 
October  11, 1891),  but  many  were  choked  and  overgrown  by  weeds  so  as 
to  be  scarcely  visible.  Part  of  them  had  also  been  injuriously  shaded 
by  the  older  trees.  Some  were  dead  and  very  few  had  made  a  satisfac- 
tory growth,  but  none  were  suffering  from  yellows.  Their  bad  appear- 
ance was  attributable  in  part  to  neglect.  Young  trees  set  into  older 
orchards  require  special  care. 

(c)  The  remainder  of  the  trees — 75  Mountain  Kose,  100  Crawford's 
Late,  and  107  Crawford's  Early — were  set  on  Dr.  W.  S.  Maxwell's  farm, 
at  the  mouth  of  Sassafras  Eiver,  Kent  County,  Maryland.  The  2 
acres  selected  for  this  orchard  are  on  a  level  hilltop,  overlooking  or- 
chards No.  1  and  No.  18  of  my  first  report.  This  field  seemed  very  well 
adapted  to  the  experiment,  having  been  already  once  in  orchard  and 
being  in  the  center  of  a  region  of  diseased  orchards.  The  remnants  of 
the  first  orchard,  about  75  trees  in  all  stages  of  yellows,  were  re- 
moved in  the  spring  of  1890.  They  were  then  9  years  old,  i.  0.,  set  9 
years,  arid  were  the  last  to  become  affected.  The  rest  of  the  trees  had 
succumbed  earlier  and  were  dug  out  at  various  times,  most  of  them  in 
1888.  The  trees  had  grown  vigorously  and  were  large. 

The  peaches  on  plum  roots  were  received  November  7  and  were  set 
the  same  day,  midway  between  the  places  occupied  by  the  old  trees. 
Three-fourths  of  these  trees  were  very  fine ;  the  rest  were  small.  They 
were  set  shallow  with  a  view  to  lessening  the  attacks  of  borers. 

About  one  pound  of  unleached,  hardwood  ashes  was  distributed 
around  each  tree  at  planting,  and  tomatoes  with  phosphate  were  grown 
in  the  field  in  the  summer  of  1890. 

The  black  peach  aphis  appeared  upon  the  tops  of  these  trees  in  early 
spring,  and  destroyed  many  of  them.  The  remainder  were  seen  as  late 
as  the  last  of  May  and  then  promised  well. 

These  trees  were  reexamined  October  8,  1890.  At  that  time  88  were 
dead,  mostly  from  the  attacks  of  the  black  aphis.  Of  the  remainder, 
42  were  stunted  and  yellowish  like  similar  trees  in  Mr.  Greene's  orchard, 
while  152  were  very  thrifty  and  still  bore  dark-green  foliage.  In  the 
former,  in  every  ca^e,  the  peach  top  had  overgrown  the  plum  stock, 
producing  a  distinct  bulge.  In  the  latter  the  stocks  had  kept  even 
pace  with  the  growth  of  the  tops,  and  the  abundant  foliage  was  still 
vigorous.  In  fact  I  have  seldom  seen  finer  yearling  trees.  Photos  1 
and  2,  plate  xxvii,  were  made  October  18  from  representative  trees  of 
each  group.  None  of  these  trees  showed  any  signs  of  yellows. 

The  five  trees  which  furnished  the  buds  were  reexamined  very  care- 
fully July  22,  1891,  i.  e.,  3  years  from  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 
They  were  still  entirely  free  from  yellows,  or  any  symptoms  suggestive 
of  that  disease,  and  were  more  vigorous  than  in  1890,  owing  to  the 
turning  under  of  a  crop  of  scarlet  clover. 


42  PEACH   YELLOWS. 

Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  predict  the  results  of  this  experiment. 
We  must  wait  and  see.  I  shall  continue  to  watch  the  parent  trees  as 
well  as  their  progeny.  I  feel  reasonably  confident  that  trees  with  sound 
constitutions  have  been  secured,  and  I  know  beyond  a  doubt  that  they 
are  in  excellent  locations  to  test  their  resisting  power. 

(3)  A  twice  repeated  effort  to  introduce  a  sound  race  of  peaches  from 
Turkestan  has  miscarried.    It  seemed  like  an  easy  matter  to  procure 
peach  stones  in  quantity  through  our  consul  at  Teheran,  but  it  has 
proved  very  difficult.    The  second  attempt  was  made  in  1889  through 
the  Department  of  State,  but  with  no  better  results. 

It  appears  to  me  safer  to  import  stones  than  trees.  If  the  latter  are 
introduced,  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  the  introduction  at 
the  same  time  of  animal  and  vegetable  parasites  which  might  prove 
worse  than  the  yellows.  The  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  cottony 
cushion  scale  into  the  orange  groves  of  California,  and  of  phylloxera, 
peronospora,  and  black  rot  into  the  vineyards  of  Europe  ought  to  be 
sufficient  warning.  The  danger  is  a  very  real  one. 

In  Mediterranean  countries  and  also  in  Australasia  there  is  a  fruit  fly 
(Tephritis)  which  once  introduced  into  this  country  would  work  great 
mischief.  It  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  fruit  after  it  is  nearly  full  grown, 
and  these  hatch  into  swarms  of  maggots,  which  pupate  in  the  ground. 
Externally  the  fruit  is  said  to  be  fair,  but  within  it  is  disgusting  corrup- 
tion. The  peach  is  specially  subject  to  this  fly,  but  apples,  pears, 
plums,  and  other  fruits  are  also  attacked.  The  -loss  is  great  and  no 
remedy  is  known.  In  Japan  there  is  a  codlin  moth  which  is  said  to 
affect  90  per  cent  of  the  ripe  fruit.  This  insect  probably  occurs  also 
in  China.  In  the  Australasian  region  there  is  also  a  very  destructive 
root  fungus,  not  confined  to  the  peach.  The  mycelium  of  this  fungus 
creeps  through  the  soil  long  distances  destroying  almost  every  green 
thing  in  its  path.  There  is  also  an  obscure  peach  disease  fully  as  de- 
structive as  yellows  and  apparently  of  a  totally  different  character.  The 
orchards  of  the  north  island  of  New  Zealand  have  been  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  it,  and  it  probably  occurs  elsewhere  in  that  region. 

This  enumeration  by  no  means  exhausts  the  list  of  parasites  which 
might  be  introduced  into  this  country  with  imported  peach  trees.  As 
the  case  stands  we  have  enough  of  our  own  without  importing  any. 

(4)  Additional  experiments  will  be  necessary  to  determine  what  pro- 
portion of  cases  are  attributable  to  the  careless  selection  of  buds. 
Yellows  is  undoubtedly  communicated  in  this  way,  but  it  must  spread 
in  other  ways.    I  have  known  many  orchards  of  budded  fruit  where  the 
trees  flourished  and  bore  abundantly  for  15  or  20  years,  or  even  longer, 
before  the  disease  appeared.    In  such  cases,  admitting  the  contagious 
nature  of  the  disease,  we  are  driven  to  one  of  two  conclusions :  the 
cause  of  the  disease  has  entered  the  tree  from  without,  or  has  been 
dormant  in  it  from  the  time  it  was  budded.     The  former  is  reasonable; 
the  latter  is  absurd,  especially  in  the  light  of  the  comparatively  speedy 
results  obtained  from  inoculations. 


FINAL   DEDUCTIONS.  43 

One  of  the  most  striking  examples  which  has  come  under  observation 
is  a  tree  on  the  home  farm  of  James  S.  Harris,  near  Still  Pond,  Maryland. 
Since  one  case  in  point  is  as  good  as  many,  I  have  been  at  some  pains 
to  learn  the  history  of  this  tree.  This  tree  is  36  years  old.  It  is  one 
of  a  number  of  accidental  seedlings  which  came  up  from  stones  thrown 
out  in  the  fall  of  1854.  It  then  stood  back  of  an  old  shop.  This  was 
afterwards  removed  and  other  changes  made  so  that  for  quite  a  good 
many  years  the  tree  has  stood  in  sod  ground,  in  the  lawn,  somewhat 
isolated  from  other  peach  trees.  It  was  budded  by  Mr.  Harris  himself 
in  the  fall  of  1855,  and  has  been  under  his  observation  and  care  ever 
since,  with  exception  only  of  a  few  years  when  he  did  not  reside  on  this 
farm.  The  variety  is  Crawford's  Early.  The  tree  has  been  hardy  and 
productive.  Its  last  crop  was  in  1888,  since  when,  in  common  with 
other  trees  in  that  region  and  owing  solely  to  unfavorable  seasons, 
it  has  borne  no  fruit.  The  tree  is  about  25  feet  high  and  has  a 
good  top ;  the  trunk  is  nearly  a  foot  in  diameter  and  still  quite  well 
preserved.  I  have  seen  this  tree  each  year  since  1887,  and  always  it 
seemed  to  me  good  for  another  10  years.  This  tree  was  budded  from 
a  neighboring  tree  when  there  was  no  yellows  in  the  vicinity.  Some 
years  after,  perhaps  10,  the  disease  appeared  and  gradually  de- 
stroyed many  younger  trees  upon  the  same  farm,  one  of  the  badly 
affected  orchards  being  within  a  stone's  throw  of  this  tree.  The  disease 
has  increased  from  that  time  to  this,  and  has  been  very  destructive 
for  the  last  5  or  6  years  in  all  that  region.  This  old  tree,  however,  kept 
on  the  even  tenor  of  its  vigor  until  the  summer  of  1890.  Then  for  the 
first  time  it  developed  unmistakable  symptoms  of  yellows  on  one  small 
limb  (plate  xxvin).  Next  year,  undoubtedly,  the  disease  will  be  mani- 
fest on  other  limbs  if  it  does  not  involve  the  whole  tree.* 

Admitting  the  contagious  nature  of  yellows,  and  this,  I  think,  can 
be  doubted  no  longer,  I  am  at  a  loss  to  explain  the  appearance  of  the 
disease  in  middle-aged  and  old  trees  except  by  infection  from  without. 
If  such  be  the  case,  then,  of  course,  every  tree  which  becomes  affected 
is  a  fresh  source  of  danger,  and  ought  to  be  removed  and  destroyed  as 
soon  as  possible. 

V— CONCLUSIONS. 

The  intelligent  reader  will  draw  his  own  conclusions.  It  is  not  out 
of  place,  however,  for  me  to  present  my  view  of  the  case.  This  is  as 
follows : 

FACTS  ESTABLISHED. 

(1)  The  disease  is  contagious.  It  seems  to  me  that  Experiments  1, 
2,  and  5  settle  this  point  beyond  dispute. 

*  Examined  July  24,  1891.  The  diseased  limb  and  the  adjoining  healthy  one  have 
been  removed  and  the  remainder  of  the  tree  shows  no  symptoms.  The  tree  bears 
green  peaches. 


44  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

(2)  It  may  be  conveyed  by  seemingly  healthy  buds  when  these  are 
taken  from  diseased  trees.    This  is  proved  by  Experiments  2  and  5. 

(3)  Only  a  very  small  amount  of  infective  material  is  necessary,  pro- 
vided it  be  in  the  forms  of  living  cells,  which  can  be  induced  to  unite 
with  the  actively  growing  tissues  of  the  tree. 

(4)  The  disease  has  a  longer  period  of  incubation  than  we  have  been 
accustomed  to  suppose.   (See  Experiment  2,  especially  Table  i,  columns 
5  and  6,  and  plate  xvm,  Fig.  1.     See  also  the  Excisions,  especially 
B  16, 18;  E  3;  G  3,  4,  5,  6,  12,  19;  and  the  note  under  G  3.) 

(5)  The  death  of  the  entire  tree  occurs,  ordinarily,  only  after  a  very 
considerable  period,  i.  e.,  several  years. 

HYPOTHESES  RENDERED  PROBABLE. 

(1)  The  whole  tree  is  affected  when  symptoms  appear  in  any  part  of 
it.    This  inference  rests  upon  Experiment  2 ;  a  small  part  of  Experi- 
ments 4  (?)  and  5 ;  and  almost  all  of  the  excisions,  52  in  number.    It  is 
hoped  that  experiments  now  underway  will  settle  this  point  definitely. 

(2)  In  some  cases,  perhaps  in  many,  the  period  of  incubation,  i.  e.9 
the  time  between  the  insertion  of  a  diseased  bud  and  the  appearance  of 
the  disease,  is  longer  than  any  yet  clearly  established.    This  is  sug- 
gested by  many  things,  especially  by  the  behavior  of  some  of  the  Bar- 
nard trees  (Experiment  4);  by  the  Excisions  E  3,  G  3,  and  the  Wilson 
tree ;  and  by  Professor  Goff's  tree. 

(3)  The  disease  is  also  communicated  to  budded  trees  in  some  other 
way  than  by  bud  inoculation.    This  is  probable  in  case  of  many  young 
trees,  and   is  almost  certain  in  case  of  old  trees.    In  some  of  my  ex- 
periments the  period  of  incubation  was  very  considerable,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  striking  peculiarities  of  yellows,  but  it  is  too  brief  to 
account  for  the  appearance  of  the  disease  after  the  second  or  third 
year,  except  possibly  in  case  of  some  of  the  trees  budded  at  Colonel 
Barnard's.    The  evidence  in  favor  of  outside  infection  becomes  stronger 
in  proportion  as  a  tree  gets  older.    Of  course,  it  goes  without  saying 
that  additional  experiments  may  demonstrate  the  period  of  incubation 
in  some  cases,  and  perhaps  in  many,  to  be  much  longer  than  any  yet 
established. 

(4)  The  trees  are  not  infected  through  the  blossoms.    This  is  inferred 
from  the  result  of  the  excisions,  and  from  the  fact  that,  in  some  cases, 
the  disease  appears  to  develop  between  fall  and  spring,  and  to  stimu- 
late the  blossoms  themselves  to  an  unnaturally  early  development. 
About  fifty  cases  of  this  kind  came  under  observation  during  the  very 
mild  winter  of  1889-'90,  and  many  additional  ones  in  the  spring  of 
1891. 

(5)  Since  diseased  trees  have  been  shown  to  be  very  full  of  infectious 
matter  it  must  be  that  for  unknown  reasons  much  of  this  fails  to  find 
an  immediate  entrance  into  healthy  trees.     Otherwise  the  peach  would 
soon  disappear  entirely. 


FURTHER    LINES    OF    INQUIRY.  45 

INQUIRIES  SUGGESTED  BY  THE  FOREGOING  EXPERIMENTS. 

Three  special  lines  of  inquiry  are  now  under  consideration,  and  will 
receive  undivided  attention  as  soon  as  the  laborious  experiments 
with  fertilizers  have  been  completed.  These  are  as  follows : 

(1)  The  period  of  incubation  of  the  disease  prior  to  its  first  appear- 
ance, i.  e.9  the  greatest  length  of  time  a  tree  may  be  aftected  before  it 
shows  any  symptoms  of  yellows. 

(2)  The  exact  nature  of  the  contagium. 

(3)  Its  method  of  spread  other  than  by  bud  inoculation. 

PART  II.— PEACH  ROSETTE. 
I.— INTRODUCTORY, 

The  second  part  of  this  report  will  be  devoted  to  a  peculiar  disease 
prevalent  in  Georgia,  and  first  referred  to  as  probably  a  Southern  vari- 
ety of  peach  yellows,*  but  since  described  under  the  name  of  The  Peach 
Rosette.] 

The  disease  does  not  appear  to  be  due  to  any  ordinary  fungus,  or  to 
insects.  In  some  respects  it  is  quite  like  peach  yellows,  but  in  others 
it  differs  very  materially.  This  year  additional  observations  have  con- 
firmed the  belief  that  it  is  a  disease  distinct  from  yellows,  and  I  shall 
so  consider  it  until  proof  to  the  contrary  is  forthcoming. 

(1)  Plants  attacked. — As  stated  elsewhere  (I.  c.),  the  Rosette  attacks 
many  varieties  of  peaches.    None  appear  to  be  exempt.    It  occurs  in 
budded  fruit  and  seedlings.     The  latter  do  not  escape  even  when  grow- 
ing in  fields  and  thickets  without  cultivation.     This  disease  is  not  con- 
fined, however,  to  the  peach,  but  also  occurs  in  plums — budded  trees 
and    seedlings,    cultivated,   uncultivated,   and   wild,   and  is  equally 
destructive.     I  have  not  seen  it  in  varieties  of  Prunus  domestica  or  in 
the  Mariana,  but  it  occurs  in  the  wild  Prunus  Chicasa,  in  the  Cumber- 
land, and  Wild  Goose,  and  also  in  the  Japanese  varieties  known  as 
Kelsey  and  Botan.     Probably  the  disease  is  capable  of  attacking  many 
other  sorts,  and  requires  only  a  suitable  opportunity. 

This  year  in  an  orchard  near  Griffin,  Georgia,  which  I  know  to  have 
been  nearly  free  from  disease  in  1890,  and  quite  thrifty  and  well  cared 
for,  1  counted  about  40  bad  cases  of  rosette,  divided  nearly  equally 
between  Kelsey  and  Botan.  These  trees  were  5  or  6  years  old,  and 
the  loss  must  have  been  considerable. 

(2)  Characteristics  of  the  disease. — As  in  peach  yellows,  this  disease  not 
infrequently  attacks  one  or  two  branches  only  at  first,  but  in  a  much 
larger  per  cent  of  cases,  the  whole  tree  is  diseased  from  the  start,  and 
the  disease  runs  its  course  in  a  much  shorter  time.     Six  months  is 
usually  sufficient  to  destroy  a  tree,  and  I  have  known  no  cases  to  last 

*  Peach  yellows  :     A  preliminary  Report,  IT.  S.  Dep.  Ag.  1888. 
t  The  Journal  of  Mycology,  Vol.  6,  No.  iv. 


46  PEACH   ROSETTE. 

more  than  two  seasons.  Such  a  thing  as  the  lingering  on  of  a  diseased 
tree  from  year  to  year,  as  in  peach  yellows,  is  not  known.  I  have  seen 
trees  completely  diseased  in  June  and  dead  in  November,  which  first 
showed  symptoms  in  early  spring  and  were  in  apparently  perfect  health 
the  preceding  autumn.  This  is  the  common  course  of  the  disease. 

When  a  tree  is  attacked  in  part,  the  shoot-axes  and  foliage  of  the 
remaining  limbs  often  appear  to  be  perfectly  healthy,  but  these  limbs 
always  develop  rosettes,  and  die  the  following  year.  Not  infrequently 
I  have  observed  the  disease  to  progress  gradually  from  the  affected  side 
to  the  healthy,  i.  e.,  the  parts  on  the  healthy  side  first  to  be  attacked 
being  the  bases  of  the  limbs.  The  bark  of  trunk  and  limbs  on  affected 
trees  presents  no  peculiar  or  symptomatic  differences.  Undoubtedly 
there  are  changes  in  the  cambium  cylinder  corresponding  to  the  short- 
ening of  the  terminal  shoot-axes,  but  these  are  not  visible  externally. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  noticible  symptoms : 

(a)  Young  shoot-axes. — Commonly  the  disease  first  appears  in  the  un- 
folding shoot-axes,  i.  e.,  in  early  spring  when  the  buds  first  open.    In 
healthy  trees  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  winter  buds  develop  into 
branches.    The  rest  die  or  remain  dormant.    In  this  disease  a  very  large 
part  of  the  winter  buds  grow  into  shoot-axes  and  also  a  very  considera- 
ble number  of  dormant  buds  on  the  older  and  larger  branches.    The 
shoot-axes  in  healthy  trees,  especially  the  terminal  ones,  generally  attain 
a  growth  of  6  to  20  inches  and  develop  ten  to_twenty  vigorous  leaves 
with  dormant  blossom  and  foliage  buds  in  their  axils.    As  the  season 
advances  such  shoots  ripen  their  wood,  cast  their  foliage,  and  remain 
quiescent  until  spring  invites  the  opening  of  their  buds  and  the  re- 
newal of  vegetative  activity.    In  diseased  trees,  the  shoot-axes  push 
only  1  to  3  inches,  lose,  almost  completely,  the  ability  to  develop  and 
ripen  wood,  and  to  form  dormant  buds.    The  buds  on  such  shoots  grow 
as  soon  as  they  are  formed,  or  rather,  as  soon  as  they  receive  the  initial 
differentiation,  developing  into  diminutive  soft  branches,  which  fre- 
quently branch  again,  but  never  attain  any  good  degree  of  size,  vig- 
or, or  maturity.     It  is  ordinary  to  find  15  to  30  primary  branches  and 
often  some  additional  secondary  ones,  on   a  shoot-axis  less  than  3 
inches  long,  and  not  over  one-eighth  inch  in  diameter  at  its  base.    The 
tendency  of  this  effort  of  branching  is  from  below  upward,  i  e.,  the 
oldest  and  largest  branches  are  near  the  base  of  the  shoot,  but  almost 
always  not  quite  from  the  base,  the  buds  remaining  undeveloped  in 
some  of  the  lowest  leaf  axils. 

(b)  The  foliage. — The  leaves  on  these  dwarfed  branching  shoot-axes 
are  multiplied  correspondingly,  and  the  result  is  compact  tufts  or 
rosettes  containing  200  to  400  diminutive  leaves,  and  many  additional 
green  stipules  which  are  frequently  misshappen  and  abnormal.     The 
older  and  larger  leaves  near  the  base  of  the  shoot  frequently  reach  a 
length  of  several  inches  and  are  characterized  by  a  very  pronounced 
inrolling  of  the  margins  of  the  leaf,  and  by  a  certain  stiffness  due  to  a 
peculiar  straightening  of  the  midrib.    These  leaves  turn  yellow  in  early 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    DISEASE.  47 

summer  and  fall  very  readily.  Jarring  causes  them  to  fall  by  the  hundred, 
as  if  it  were  autumn.  Very  often  they  are  blotched,  browned,  and  dead 
in  places,  especially  at  the  ends  and  margins,  from  the  attacks  of  various 
leaf  fungi.  The  younger  and  central  leaves  of  the  rosette  remain  small 
and  green  and  free  from  fungi.  They  are  usually  somewhat  folded,  but 
seldom  rolled.  As  summer  advances  these  rosettes  dry  up  and  die  un- 
der the  attacks  of  Scolytus  rugulosus  or  from  the  effects  of  the  disease. 
The  foliage  of  some  affected  trees  is  much  greener  than  others.  Gen- 
erally the  prevailing  color  from  a  distance  is  yellowish  green  or  oliva- 
ceous. The  bunching  of  the  leaves  is  conspicuous  and  makes  the  trees 
noticable  at  a  long  distance.  There  is  not  enough  foliage  to  give  shade 
or  hide  the  branches. 

(c)  Flowers  and  fruits. — So  far  as  I  can  determine  by  inquiry,  the 
trees  which  developed  this  disease  in  1891  in  Mr.  Husted's  orchards 
did  not  blossom  in  advance  of  other  trees,  but  were  somewhat  tardy. 
On  the  contrary,  other  trees  in  the  same  orchard,  imported  from  New 
Jersey  and  affected  with  an  entirely  different  disease,  and  what  appears 
to  be  genuine  yellows,  blossomed  ten  days  in  advance  of  the  proper 
time. 

Trees  attacked  by  rosette  generally  drop  their  fruit  early  and  while 
it  is  still  green  or  yellowish  green.  In  June,  1891, 1  saw  scattering 
fruits  on  many  diseased  trees,  and  none  of  them  were  premature  or  bore 
any  of  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  peach  yellows.  The  fruit,  even 
on  badly  affected  limbs,  when  there  was  any  at  all,  was  small,  green,  or 
yellowish  green,  and  often  more  or  less  shriveled.  Fruits  of  this  kind 
were  also  common  on  the  ground  under  such  trees.  Plate  xxxm  shows 
two  peach  twigs  bearing  green  fruits ;  the  right-hand  figure  was  from 
the  healthy-looking  side  of  a  tree,  the  left-hand  one  from  twigs  just 
beginning  to  develop  rosettes,  and  very  close  to  branches  bearing  thor- 
oughly diseased  and  very  typical  rosettes.  Its  own  buds  were  also 
pushing  into  rosettes  above  the  fruit  and  below.  One  yellowish  green 
shriveling  fruit  remained  and  another  had  fallen.  In  one  instance  the 
disease  was  observed  in  Alexanders  which  were  full  of  ripening  fruit 
and  affected  by  the  rosette  only  on  about  one-half  of  the  limbs. 
Most  of  the  fruit  had  already  fallen  from  the  diseased  limbs,  green 
and  shriveled,  but  a  few  peaches  remained  on  the  healthier  portions, 
and  these,  like  those  on  the  other  limbs,  were  neither  premature  nor 
red-spotted,  but  were  ripening  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  normal 
manner.  The  diseased  branches  bore  hundreds  of  yellowish  rosettes; 
the  healthy  ones  bore  an  abundance  of  dark  green,  handsome  foliage. 

My  .search  for  premature  fruit  was  the  more  careful  because  I  had 
ventured  the  assertion  that  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  found  to  precede  the 
rosette.  In  one  or  two  instances  only,  I  heard  of  premature  peaches, 
but  on  examination  they  were  clearly  attributable  to  borers  and  not 
the  sort  produced  by  yellows.  In  one  orchard  where  the  borers  had 
been  left  undisturbed  for  several  years,  I  saw  fruits  prematuring  on 
many  trees,  but  there  were  no  symptoms  of  yellows.  The  color  and 


48  PEACH    ROSETTE. 

flavor  of  these  fruits  was  natural  and  they  were  ripening  only  a  week 
or  ten  days  in  advance  of  the  proper  time. 

(d)  Roots  and  rootlets.— Superficially  the  roots  appear  to  be  normal, 
but  the  rootlets  are  dead  and  shriveled  as  in  peach  yellows. 

(e)  Gummosis. — The  green  and  shriveling  fruits  from  resetted  limbs 
were  full  of  minute  gum-pockets,  but  this  symptom  was  afterwards 
observed  quite  frequently  in  imperfect  fruits  taken  from  healthy  trees. 
The"  June-drop  "  from  Elbertatrtes  was  very  copious  at  Griffin,  Georgia, 
in  1891,  and  most  of  these  fruits  were  smooth  externally  but  gummy 
within,  the  entire  seed-cavity  being  changed  into  a  gum-pocket  in  many 
cases.    These  fruits  were  an  inch  by  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter 
at  time  of  dropping. 

Many  of  the  roots  of  resetted  trees  were  honeycombed  by  gum-pockets 
(June,  1891).  This  symptom  was  found  to  be  nearly  constant  j  i.  e.,  it 
occurred  on  some  roots  of  nearly  every  affected  tree.  But  it  was  also  ob- 
served to  a  slight  extent  on  the  roots  of  two  trees  which  stand  very  near 
diseased  ones,  but  which  have  not  yet  developed  any  symptoms  of  the 
rosette.  Many  of  the  roots  were  so  gummy  as  to  feel  sticky  when 
bruised.  By  making  a  clean  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  main  axis  of  the 
root  the  gum-pockets  were  frequently  visible  without  the  aid  of  a  trip- 
let, especially  when  the  oozing  of  gum  was  copious.  These  pockets  were 
confined  generally  to  the  outer  part  of  the  wood  cylinder,  and  in  several 
cases,  known  to  have  been  healthy  in  November,  1890,  the  cylinder  of 
gum-cavities  was  confined  to  the  wood  laid  down  in  1891,  or  to  the 
dividing  line  between  this  wood  cylinder  and  the  next  inner  one,  and 
did  not  extend  into  the  wood  formed  in  1890. 

These  closed  gum-pockets  involve  few  to  many  wood  fibers,  and  fre- 
quently include  the  very  resistant  cells  of  the  medullary  rays.  On 
cross-section  they  appear  like  an  interrupted  ring,  or  like  a  necklace  of 
triangular  beads,  in  which  each  member  corresponds  to  a  pocket.  The 
base  of  these  triangular  cavities  was  always  nearest  the  pith.  Occa- 
sionally two  cylinders  of  gum-pockets  were  observed,  one  in  wood  formed 
early  this  spring  when  the  disease  first  appeared  in  the  trees  and  the 
other  formed  in  wood  recently  laid  down.  In  a  few  cases  they  occurred 
also  in  the  bark.  The  walls  were  brownish  and  irregular,  with  modified 
and  frequently  hyper trophied  and  projecting  cells.  These  cavities  ap- 
peared to  be  free  from  mycelium  and  bacteria,  and  cultures  from  the 
walls  and  the  exuding  gum  gave  no  positive  results. 

The  roots  of  about  fifty  trees  were  examined  for  this  symptom,  but 
lack  of  time  prevented  the  examinations  from  being  as  extensive  and 
complete  as  desirable. 

(3)  First  appearance  and  present  distribution. — So  far  as  I  can  learn 
by  diligent  inquiry  this  disease  first  appeared  in  Georgia  about  10 
years  ago.  It  may  have  existed  longer,  but  satisfactory  evidence  of 
this  is  wanting.  It  occurs  in  the  middle  and  north  part  of  Georgia 
quite  generally,  but  I  have  not  observed  it  in  South  Georgia  or  in  Flor- 
ida, nor  in  South  Carolina  or  States  to  the  north. 


INOCULATIONS.  49 

This  disease,  or  one  very  much  like  it,  also  occurs  in  Kansas.  It 
appeared  at  Manhattan  in  1889,  and  is  now  quite  prevalent  in  that 
locality,  but  has  not  been  reported  from  other  parts  of  that  State. 

The  disease  is  very  destructive  in  both  States.  Mr.  T.  0.  Wells,  of 
Manhattan,  Kansas,  lost  his  entire  orchard  in  2  years.  Mr.  E.  C.  Fryer, 
of  Shiloh,  Georgia,  has  lost  several  orchards,  each  in  a  space  of  about 

3  years.    In  other  parts  of  Georgia  the  disease  has  progressed  less 
rapidly,  but  no  less  surely.    About  Griffin.  Georgia,  the  seedling-peach 
orchards,  and  the  wild  plums  have  suffered  most,  but  the  disease  has 
been  in  the  budded  orchards  for  some  time,  and  is  gaining  ground 
every  year.    Next  to  peach  yellows,  I  regard  it  as  the  most  dangerous 
enemy  to  peach  culture  in  the  United  States.    In  some  respects  it  is 
worse  than  yellows,  because  it  runs  its  course  more  speedily  and  is 
more  apt  to  take  the  entire  tree  from  the  start.     Should  it  become  as 
prevalent  in  Kansas  and  Georgia  as  yellows  now  is  in  north  Mary- 
laud  and  Delaware,  profitable  peach  growing  will  be  entirely  out  of  the 
question. 

II.— INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  1. — One  hundred  and  twenty-five  trees  were  selected  for 
this  series  of  inoculations.  They  were  grown  in  1889  by  J.  D.  Husted, 
Vineyard,  Georgia,  and  formed  part  of  a  nursery  of  several  thousand 
seedlings,  which  were  not  budded  that  year,  but  were  cut  to  the  ground 
in  the  spring  of  1890,  so  as  to  be  suitable  for  budding  the  following 
summer.  All  of  them  appeared  to  be  healthy  and  the  shoots  of  the 
season  were  vigorous  and  in  good  condition  for  inoculation.  The  trees 
selected  were  the  outer  five  rows  in  the  southeast  corner,  and  were  not 
different  in  appearance  from  the  rest  of  the  nursery. 

The  buds  for  inoculation  came  from  several  5-year  old  trees  in  an 
orchard  on  the  same  farm.  These  trees  were  badly  diseased  in  all  parts, 
but  were  vigorous  and  free  from  any  sign  of  disease  in  1889.  They 
were  dug  out  and  burned  soon  after  the  buds  were  taken,  but,  judging 
from  the  rapid  progress  of  the  disease  in  other  trees  similarly  affected, 
they  would  not  have  lived  through  the  growing  season.  It  was  impos- 
sible to  find  dormant  buds,  so  I  selected,  the  base  of  such  diseased  shoots 
or  rosettes  as  had  pushed  only  a  little  way,  removing  from  them  all  of 
the  foliage.  They  were  cut  June  21,  1890,  and  inserted  the  same  day. 
two  into  each  tree,  in  the  customary  way.  The  inoculation  was  skill- 
fully performed,  and  an  examination  two  weeks  later  showed  that 
nearly  all  of  the  buds  had  healed  on  satisfactorily  and  were  alive.  As 
in  Part  I,  Experiment  2,  the  tops  of  the  seedlings  were  purposely 
allowed  to  remain. 

Some  of  these  trees  began  to  show  signs  of  disease  in  August,  i.  e.t 
within  2  months,  but  they  were  not  examined  until  November  3,  i.  e., 

4  months  and  12  days  from  the  date  of  inoculation.     Then  a  careful  ex- 
amination revealed  the  following  conditions :  Of  the  125  seedlings  which 

1609— Bull.  1 4 


50  PEACH   ROSETTE. 

were  inoculated,  57  were  healthy,  66  were  diseased,  and  2  appeared  to 
be  dead. 

In  6  of  the  57  healthy,  one  or  both  of  the  inserted  buds  had  pushed 
into  diseased  growths;  in  the  rest,  the  buds  had  made  no  growth  (the 
majority),  or  only  a  slight  growth  of  uncertain  character.  In  most 
cases  the  bark  inserted  with  the  buds  was  still  living. 

Sixty-six  of  the  stocks  had  the  same  disease  as  the  trees  from  which 
the  buds  were  cut.  The  diseased  shoots  pushed  out  indifferently  above 
or  below  the  inserted  buds,  or  from  both  places.  These  stocks  might 
have  been  grouped  into  four  classes  according  to  the  severity  of  the  symp- 
toms: (1)  Doubtful,  4;  (2)  very  slight  symptoms  readily  overlooked, 
20 ;  (3)  worse  affected  than  No.  2,  but  also  not  likely  to  attract  casual 
attention,  36 ;  (4)  bad  cases  which  no  one  could  overlook,  6.  Five  of 
the  latter  were  photographed,  and  two  are  represented  on  plate  xxxiv. 
Some  of  these  growths  were  as  much  as  6  inches  from  the  nearest 
inserted  bud.  In  39  of  these  trees  the  inserted  buds  did  not  grow,  or 
grew  only  slightly,  the  bark  which  was  inserted  with  them  being  yet 
alive.  In  27,  one  or  both  of  the  buds  had  grown  into  diseased  shoots. 
All  but  1  of  the  6  bad  cases  fell  into  the  second  category.  The  charac- 
ter of  these  growths  was  much  like  yellows,  except  that  the  shoot-axes 
were  greatly  reduced,  making  them  much  more  tufted.  The  winter 
buds  pushed  in  the  same  way — prematurely. 

The  remainder  of  this  nursery  was  used  for  comparison,  but  a  care- 
ful examination  of  many  trees  brought  to  light  no  traces  of  this  disease. 
The  orchards  on  the  same  farm  might  also  have  served  for  control. 
This  disease  occurs  throughout  the  surrounding  country,  but  is  not 
what  might  be  called  epidemic.  The  farm  contains  about  100  acres  of 
peach  orchard  of  various  ages.  The  disease  first  appeared  on  it  in  1887, 
and  the  number  of  cases  each  year  has  been  as  follows:  1887, 2  ;  1888. 
5;  1889,13-  1890,  31;  1891,47.  This  year,  in  which  more  cases  devel- 
oped than  any  previous  year,  they  numbered  only  about  one-third  of 
1  per  cent.  In  the  nearest  orchards  on  other  farms  the  per  cent  of  loss 
has  also  been  slight. 

This  experiment  attracted  some  local  attention,  and  the  trees  which 
furnished  the  photographs  were  shown  to  many  persons  at  a  meeting 
of  the  Middle  Georgia  Horticultural  Society,  November  6,  1890. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  disease  was  surprising.  Over  one-half  of 
the  stocks  became  affected  in  less  than  5  months,  whereas  results  were 
not  expected  until  1891,  if  at  all. 

These  trees  were  re-examined  June  3-6,  1891,  at  the  urgent  request 
of  Mr.  Husted,  who  desired  to  get  rid  of  them.  The  results  surprised 
and  delighted  me  beyond  expectation.  The  diseased  trees  were  dis- 
tinguishable at  a  great  distance,  and  at  first  glance  it  looked  as  though 
every  part  of  every  tree  was  affected.  The  actual  conditions  were  as 
follows: 

(1)  Four  trees  were  entirely  free  from  disease  and  Lad  made  an  excellent  growth, 
their  average  height  being  about  4  feet* 


RESULT   OF   INOCULATIONS.  51 

(2)  Two  trees  were  badly  diseased,  but  a  few  small  branches  bad  developed  normal, 
or  nearly  normal,  leaves  and  shoot-axes,  while  a  few  others  bore  sickly  yellowish 
leaves  and  no  rosettes.     These  trees  were  dwarfed,  and  at  least  nineteen-twentieths 
of  the  branches  bore  yellowish  green  rosettes. 

(3)  The  remaining  trees,  113  in  number,  were  diseased  in   all  parts,  exactly  as 
had  been  the  trees  from  which  the   buds  were  taken.     The  leaves  and  shoot-axes 
were  stunted,  yellowish  green,  and  bunched    into  striking   rosettes.     Out  of  this 
large  number  of  trees  there  was  not  one  which  bore  a  single  healthy  leaf  or  a  nor- 
mally-developed shoot-axis.     Every  part  of  each  tree  was  completely  diseased.     The 
greater  number  were  still  alive  in  all  parts,  but  a  few  were  withering  (see  left-hand 
figure  of  plate  xxxv),  and  a  few  were  already  dead.     Almost  all  of  the  winter  buds 
developed  into  rosettes  in  spring,  and  in  some  cases  these  appeared  also  on  the  stems 
above  and  below  the  location  of  the  inserted  buds  (plate  xxxv). 

A  more  satisfactory  outcome  could  scarcely  be  desired  for  any  ex- 
periment whatsoever. 

Each  tree  was  carefully  examined,  and  notes  were  made  on  the  con- 
dition of  each  inserted  bud,  These  observations  were  also  verified,  at 
my  request,  by  Mr.  W.  T,  Swingle,  of  the  Division  of  Vegetable  Path- 
ology, so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  whatever  concerning  their  value. 

In  the  four  trees  which  remained  healthy  the  inserted  buds  failed  to 
unite  with  the  stocks  and  were  thrown  off.  the  bark  of  the  stock  hav- 
ing healed  over  under  them.  The  only  uncertainty  was  concerning  a 
small  fragment  of  the  bark  of  one  bud,  and  the  evidence  of  union  in 
this  case  was  so  unsatisfactory  that  it  was  entered  as  "very  doubtful.'7 
Three  of  these  trees  received  two  buds  each,  but  by  accident  the  other 
received  only  one  bud. 

In  one  of  the  1.15  diseased  trees  the  evidence  of  union  between  the 
stock  and  the  two  inserted  buds  was  also  doubtful.  In  all  of  the  others 
some  part  of  one  or  both  buds  had  united  with  the  stock,  and  in  many 
instances  was  still  living.  This  was  also  true  of  the  6  trees  removed 
in  1890.  Often,  however,  only  small  fragments  of  each  bud  healed  on. 
Occasionally  less  than  one-fourth  of  1  square  centimetre  of  the  bark  of 
one  bud  was  all  of  the  diseased  tissue  that  had  actually  united  with 
the  stock,  and  yet  this  was  sufficient  to  induce  the  disease.  None  of 
the  inserted  buds  pushed  over  3  inches,  most  failed  entirely  or  pushed 
only  one-fourth  inch  to  1  inch  and  then  died. 

The  diseased  seedlings  were  noticeably  smaller  than  the  four  healthy 
ones.  On  an  average  they  were  about  3  feet  high  with  a  proportionate 
spread  of  branches. 

The  contrast  between  the  November  and  June  examinations  is  note- 
worthy. In  November,  when  the  disease  had  been  acting  less  than 
5  months,  only  66  of  the  stocks  showed  any  symptoms  whatever. 
None  of  them  were  wholly  diseased;  most  showed  no  signs  of  disease 
at  a  distance,  and  even  a  large  part  of  the  six  worst  cases  was  still  free 
from  symptoms  (plate  xxxiv).  In  June,  after  the  disease  had  been 
acting  nearly  a  year,  121  of  the  original  125  trees  had  become  affected, 
and  115  so  completely  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to  find  any  healthy 
branches.  The  only  uncertainty  is  concerning  the  six  which  were 
removed  in  November  for  photographic  purposes.  Their  condition, 


52  PEACH   ROSETTE. 

however,  at  that  time  (plate  xxxiv)  warrants  one  in  believing  that 
they  too  would  have  become  wholly  diseased  long  before  June. 

This  experiment  was  the  more  striking,  because  in  the  same  field, 
forming  part  of  the  same  nursery,  and  separated  from  these  five  rows 
only  by  the  width  of  a  one-horse  cultivator,  are  about  4,000  Elberta 
trees,  which  were  budded  on  the  same  stocks  and  at  about  the  same 
date  with  buds  cut  from  healthy  trees  on  the  same  farm.  These  trees 
were  carefully  examined  for  the  rosette,  but  in  the  whole  nursery  there 
was  not  one  case,  nor  even  one  suspicious  tree.  The  line  of  separation 
between  these  healthy  trees  and  the  five  inoculated  rows  was  sharp  as 
could  be  desired,  and  the  contrast  was  most  astonishing  (plate  xxxvm). 
Two  of  these  Elberta  trees  are  also  contrasted  on  plate  xxxvn  with 
two  inoculated  and  diseased  trees  from  the  adjoining  row,  only  about 
2£  feet  distant. 

Plate  xxxvi  contrasts  one  of  the  inoculated  and  diseased  seedlings 
with  one  of  the  four  which  failed  to  take  the  disease.  Plate  xxxv 
shows  part  of  one  inoculated  row  with  rosettes  on  some  of  the  stems 
as  well  as  on  all  of  the  terminal  growth.  The  foliage  on  the  left-hand 
tree  had  already  begun  to  wilt  and  shrivel.  Plate  xxxvin  gives  a 
birds-eye  view  of  the  field,  contrasting  some  of  the  inoculated  diseased 
trees  with  the  neighboring  healthy  Elbertas. 

Naturally,  the  results  of  this  experiment  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  Georgia,  especially  the  appearance  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer of  1891.  The  trees  were  examined  by  many  persons,  including  Col. 
E.  J.  Kedding,  director  of  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station ;  Gustave 
Speth,  Horticulturist  of  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station ;  Prof.  J.  E, 
Willet,  of  Macon;  H.  W.  Hasselkus,  of  Griffin,  and  Rudolph  (Etter,  of 
Vineyard.  A  summary  of  the  final  results  was  given  before  a  meeting 
of  the  Middle  Georgia  Horticultural  Society  June  9,  1891.  The  matter 
was  also  brought  to  the  attention  of  Mr.  Berckmans  and  other  members 
of  the  State  Horticultural  Society. 

Experiment  2. — This  was  also  performed  at  Vineyard,  Georgia,  on  the 
farm  of  J.  D.  Husted. 

The  56  trees  selected  for  this  series  of  inoculations  were  vigorous, 
well-rooted  cuttings  of  the  Mariana  plum.  They  formed  part  of  a  small 
nursery  grown  in  1889,  but  not  budded  that  year,  being  cut  to  the 
ground  in  the  spring  of  1890,  so  as  to  secure  fresh  shoots  for  budding 
the  following  summer.  These  trees  formed  the  east  end  of  the  south 
row  and  were  not  different  in  appearance  from  the  rest.  All  were 
the  picture  of  health. 

The  buds  for  inoculation  were  taken  from  the  north  side  of  a  seedling 
peach  tree  which  was  growing  by  the  wayside  near  Pomona,  Georgia. 
This  tree  may  have  been  4  years  old.  The  south  one-half  of  it  was  dis- 
eased by  the  rosette,  and  the  remainder  appeared  to  be  healthy.  Well- 
matured  terminal  shoots  from  the  healthy-looking  branches  were  selected 
for  use  in  budding.  All  of  them  bore  full-grown  leaves  of  a  healthy 


RESULT   OF    INOCULATIONS.  53 

green,  and  their  buds  showed  no  tendency  to  germinate.  Moreover,  all 
of  the  foliage  on  the  branches  in  the  immediate  vicinity  was  full  grown 
and  healthy,  and  there  were  no  signs  of  disease  nearer  than  the  base  of 
the  main  branches,  4  to  6  feet  below.  The  buds  were  cut  July  1,  1890, 
and  inserted  the  same  day — two  into  each  tree— in  the  usual  way.  A 
subsequent  examination  showed  that  many  of  them  had  healed  on  and 
were  living.  The  tops  of  the  cuttings  were  not  removed  until  some 
weeks  later. 

These  trees  were  reexamined  November  3,  1890.  At  that  time  only 
32  of  the  56  stocks  bore  peach  shoots.  Upon  the  rest  the  buds  failed 
to  take  or  died  soon  after  commencing  to  grow.  In  30  of  the  stocks 
the  buds  had  grown  into  shoots,  which  were  15  to  30  inches  long.  In 
many  cases  both  buds  grew.  The  foliage,  which  had  not  yet  fallen,  was 
normal,  except  for  slight  parasitism  of  Puccinia  pruni,  Pers.,  and  the 
shoots  were  vigorous.  There  were  no  rosettes,  no  winter  buds  were 
germinating,  nor  were  there  any  other  signs  of  the  disease.  One  bud 
only  developed  in  each  of  the  other  two.  One  had  grown  only  about  8 
inches,  but  was  normal  j  the  other  had  grown  only  -J  inch  and  the  foli- 
age was  reddish  and  unhealthy.  All  of  the  stocks  appeared  to  be  as 
healthy  as  when  the  buds  were  inserted. 

The  parent  tree  was  also  examined  at  this  time.  The  disease  had 
made  considerable  progress,  but  careful  search  failed  to  discover  any 
germinating  buds  or  sickly  shoots  upon  that  part  of  the  tree  which 
supplied  the  buds  for  inoculation.  There  were  signs  of  disease  at  the 
union  of  the  main  limb  and  the  stem,  but  none  further  up.  All  large 
parts  of  the  tree  were  still  alive. 

This  tree  was  reexamined  June  8, 1891.  It  bore  no  normal  leaves 
or  shoot-axes.  The  limbs  which  were  first  to  manifest  disease  in  1890 
were  now  dead  in  great  part,  and  all  other  portions  of  the  tree  were 
badly  diseased,  including  the  branches  from  which  the  buds  were  taken. 
Unfortunately  the  extreme  ends  of  the  branches  were  dead  without 
symptoms  of  rosette  or  foliage  of  any  sort,  but  they  were  living  last 
November  and  are  now  alive  to  within  1  foot  of  the  cuts,  and  bear 
very  sickly  rosettes. 

The  peach  tops  inoculated  upon  the  Mariana  plums  were  again  exam- 
ined June  22, 1891,  and  the  contrast  between  them  and  the  condition 
of  the  tree  which  furnished  the  buds  was  very  great.  They  looked  as 
healthy  and  vigorous  as  did  the  north  side  of  the  parent  tree  when  the 
buds  were  cut. 

Fifteen  stocks  bore  double  shoots  and  16  bore  single  shoots,  making 
a  total  of  46  living  peach  shoots  on  31  stocks.  A  very  few  of  the 
remaining  Mariana  stocks  died;  the  rest  grew  thriftily  and  were  cut 
back  to  the  earth  at  the  time  of  this  examination.  None  developed  any 
symptoms  of  rosette.  The  average  growth  of  the  peach  shoots  to 
date  is  3  to  3J  feet,  and  their  diameter  at  the  base  where  they  join  the 
plum  is  f  to  f  inch.  They  show  no  symptoms  of  rosette  or  decline, 
while  the  parent  tree  is  now  affected  in  all  parts  and  already  half  dead. 


54  PEACH   ROSETTE. 

In  another  way  this  experiment  establishes  the  same  fact  as  No.  1, 
i.  e.,  the  gradual  transmission  of  a  germ  or  virus  of  some  sort  from  dis- 
eased to  healthy  parts.  Clearly  something  is  now  affecting  the  tissues 
of  the  north  part  of  the  parent  tree  which  was  not  in  them  one  year  ago. 
Otherwise  the  46  peach  shoots  should  now  be  diseased  exactly  like  that 
part  of  the  parent  tree. 

It  is  obvious  that  some  years  must  elapse  before  this  experiment  is 
complete,  but  enough  has  been  observed  already  to  make  it  almost  certain 
that  the  disease  was  not  communicated  by  these  buds.  It  is  the  same 
kind  of  an  experiment  as  No.  4  of  Part  I. 


III.— CONCLUSIONS. 

(1)  The  rosette,  as  now  understood,  differs  from  peach  yellows  in  the 
following  particulars : 

(a)  The  more  tufted  character  and  somewhat  different  appearance  of  the  diseased 
growths. 

(&)  The  much  greater  tendency  of  these  compactly  tufted  growths  to  develop  ID 
early  spring  from  winter  buds  and  to  appear  all  over  the  tree. 

(c)  A  less  tendency  to  develop  sprouts  upon  the  trunk  and  main  limbs. 

(d)  The  absence  of  premature  fruit. 

(e)  The  general  early  fall  of  leaves  and  fruit  on  affected  trees,  the  fruit  being  small, 
yellowish  green,  and  more  or  less  shriveled  and  gummy. 

(/)  Gummosis  of  the  roots. 

(#)  The  occurrence  of  the  disease  in  plums. 

(ft)  The  much  more  speedy  destruction  of  affected  trees. 

(2)  The  disease  is  virulently  contagious  (Experiment  1),  and  it  is 
probable  that  something  might  be  done  toward  checking  its  increase 
by  the  prompt  destruction  of  all  affected  trees.    This  should  be  done 
in  early  spring,  as  soon   as  the  disease  appears  and  before  the  leaves 
begin  to  fall. 

(3)  The  disease  may  exist  for  a  short  time  in  part  of  a  tree  without 
being  in  the  rest  of  it  (Experiment  2),  but  it  soon  involves  the  entire 
tree.    In  other  words,  it  would  seem  from  Experiment  2  that  the  cause 
of  the  disease  must  enter  the  tree  at  some  particular  point  or  points 
and  be  carried  gradually  to  all  parts  through  the  circulation.    A  com- 
parison of  the  November  and  June  examinations  in  Experiment  1  also 
confirms  this  belief. 

(4)  As  in  peach  yellows,  the  admitted  fact  that  neighboring  trees  are 
not  always  the  next  to  take  the  disease  is  no  argument  against  its  com- 
municable nature. 

(5)  This  disease  has  gained  a  strong  foothold  and  is  on  the  increase, 
especially  in  that  part  of  Georgia  known  geologically  as  the  Archa3an. 

(6)  If  Georgia  peach-growers  would  save  their  orchards  and  main- 
tain the  successful  cultivation  of  the  peach,  the  necessity  for  prompt 
and  concerted  action  appears  to  be  very  great. 


EXPLANATION    OF   PLATES.  55 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 
I. — PEACH  YELLOWS. 

I.  Fig.  1,  healthy  fruit  of  Stump  the  World  or  Old  Mixon,  nearly  full  grown, 
but  still  green  ;  Fig.  2,  prematurely  ripe,  red-spotted  peach  of  the  same 
variety,  picked  the  same  day  from  a  neighboring  tree,  affected  by  yellows. 
Photo.  August  20,  1888,  Dover,  Del.  Natural  size. 

II.  Growth  from  the  trunk  of  a  diseased  tree,  showing  premature  unfolding 
of  winter  buds.  Photo.  December  4. 1890.  Upper  orchard  on  the  grounds 
of  the  State  agricultural  college,  Amherst,  Mass. 

III.  Fig.  1,  represents  three  shoots  taken  from  the  main  limbs  of  a  diseased  tree 

in  the  autumn  of  1890.  The  spring  foliage  has  fallen  almost  completely, 
and  what  remains  has  developed  unnaturally  from  winter  buds.  Fig.  2, 
represents  a  healthy  shoot  taken  from  the  trnnk  of  a  neighboring  tree. 
The  droop  of  the  foliage  is  due  to  loss  of  water  after  the  shoot  was  pulled 
and  before  it  could  be  photograped.  Photo.  October,  1890,  Still 
Pond,  Md. 

IV.  Terminal  shoots  taken  from  diseased  trees  in  the  autumn  of  1890.     In  Figs. 

1,  2,  and  3,  the  spring  foliage  has  fallen  almost  completely,  and  what 
remains  has  developed  unnaturally  from  winter  buds.  In  Fig.  4  some  of 
the  spring  foliage  remains.  In  Figs.  2  and  4  the  disease  has  induced 
the  autumn  development  of  blossoms.  Photo.  October  15,  1890,  Still 
Pond,  Md. 

V.  Terminal  spring  growths  from  a  tree  at  South  Haven,  Mich.  Branches 
very  compactly  tufted  for  yellows,  and  somewhat  approaching  the  Ro- 
sette, but  believed  to  be  distinct,  Foliage  removed  from  one  tuft  to  show 
manner  of  branching.  All  above  X  is  the  growth  of  one  season.  Reduced 
to  one-half  natural  size.  Photo.  July  23,  1869. 

VI.  Terminal  summer  and  autumn  growths  from  trees  in  Delaware.  Fig.  1  is 
more  advanced  than  Fig.  2.  All  shoots  above  X  and  x'  are  the  growth  of 
one  season.  In  each  very  little  spring  foliage  remains.  This  is  the  com- 
mon appearance  of  the  disease.  Photo*  Fig.  I,  September  27,  1887;  Fig.  2, 
September  27,  1890;  Dover,  Del.  About  one  eighth  natural  size. 

Vila.  A  tree  in  the  last  stage  of  yellows.  Diseased  for  several  years.  Smyrna,  Del. 
Photo.  July  21,  1891.  Orchard  No.  8  of  First  Report. 

VII&.  Represents  a  tree  killed  by  yellows  in  3-J-  years'  time,  and  shows  branched 
character  of  the  last  feeble  growths.  The  entire  corner  was  full  of  thrifty 
trees,  but  they  are  now  badly  diseased,  and  the  orchard  has  been  allowed 
to  grow  up  to  grass  and  weeds.  Formerly  it  was  very  carefully  tilled. 
Tree  became  affected  in  the  spring  of  1887  and  died  in  the  summer  of  1890. 
Photo.  September  30,  1890,  Magnolia,  Del. 

INOCULATION  EXPERIMENT  NO.  1. 

VIII.  First  results,  year  1888.  Three  figures  showing  unusual  number  of  sprouts 
and  the  unfolding  of  the  winter  buds  in  autumn.  Fig.  1,  a  and  a'  are 
the  inserted  buds;  a  failed  to  grow  but,  a1  grew  into  a  vigorous  shoot, 
on  which  all  the  winter  buds  pushed;  bbb  are  diseased  growths  from  the 
stock.  Fig.  2,  a  and  a'  represent  growths  from  the  inserted  buds.  The 
lower  shoots  are  diseased  growths  from  the  stock.  Fig.  3,  a  and  a'  repre- 
sent the  inserted  buds ;  a  failed  to  grow,  but  a'  grew  into  a  branching  dis- 
eased shoot,  which  was  cut  away  ;  &,  &',  and  b"  are  diseased  growths  from 
the  stock,  most  of  b  having  been  cut  away.  All  the  foliage  is  from  winter 
buds.  Time,  14  months  from  date  of  inoculation.  Photos.  November  3, 1888. 


56  PEACH    YELLOWS. 

IX.  Year  1889.  This  plate  represents  a  row  of  peach  trees  on  the  Depart- 
ment grounds.  Figs.  1  and  12  are  healthy  seedling  trees,  grown  from 
pits,  which  germinated  in  the  spring  of  1888.  All  the  rest  are  trees  1 
year  older,  but  very  badly  dwarfed  and  diseased  by  yellows.  Time,  26 
months  from  date  of  inoculation.  These  are  the  ten  trees  mentioned 
in  the  text,  and  some  of  them  are  the  ones  which  furnished  the  pho- 
tographs for  Plate  VIII.  They  were  carefully  transplanted  in  the 
autumn  of  1888  and  suffered  no  injury.  Nos.  2,  3,  7,  10,  and  11  were 
already  dead  at  the  time  this  photograph  was  made.  The  difference 
in  size  is  attributable  to  the  dwarfing  effects  of  the  disease  produced 
by  the  inserted  buds.  The  diseased  growths  in  4,  6,  and  9  are  prin- 
cipally from  the  inserted  buds;  those  in  5  and  8  are  almost  altogether' 
from  the  seedling  stock.  Photo.  October  21,  1889. 

X.  Two  trees  from  same  row  as  Plate  IX  but  enlarged  to  show  certain  de- 
tails of  the  disease.  These  are  Nos.  8  and  9.  Much  of  the  foliage  is  from 
winter  buds,  which  unfolded  in  summer  and  autumn. 

XI.  Year  1890.  Contrast  of  diseased  and  healthy  trees.  Same  as  Plate  IX,  but 
13  months  later,  i.  e.,  3  years  and  3  mouths  from  inoculation ;  1  and 
12  are  still  entirely  healthy.  They  have  continued  to  grow,  and  have 
shed  their  foliage  for  winter.  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  and  9  are  all  that  remain 
of  the  10  trees  moved  and  also  all  that  remain  of  the  entire  202  inocu- 
lated trees ;  No.  4  is  dead,  and  5,  6,  and  9  are  badly  diseased  in  all 
parts.  All  the  foliage  is  from  winter  buds  which  developed  in  autumn, 
Photographed  November  21, 1890.  These  three  trees  have  proved  very 
resistent  and  are  all  alive  (August  16,  1891),  i.  e,,  4  full  years  from 
date  of  inoculation. 

XII.  Part  of  same  row  as  Plate  XI,  showing  three  of  the  inoculated  and  dis- 
eased trees  more  in  detail  (Nos.  4,  5  and  6),  also  a  few  branches  of 
No.  I.  Photo.  November  21,  1890. 


INOCULATION  EXPERIMENT  NO.  2. 

XIII.  Year  1889.     Two  figures  showing  seedling  trees  completely  diseased ;  x 

indicates  the  location  of  the  inserted  buds  which  are  now  dead.  Trees, 
27  months  old.  Diseased  buds  inserted  August  3,  1887,  i.  e.,  23  mouths 
prior  to  date  of  photograph.  Photos.  July  1,  1889,  Hubbardston,  Mich. 

XIV.  Year  1889.  Same  series  as  XIII.  In  Fig.  1  the  inserted  bud  was  on  the  op- 

posite side  of  the  camera  and  was  dead.  In  Fig.  2,  x  grew  from  the 
inserted  bud  in  1888  but  died  in  1889.  Both  trees  bore  yellowish  foliage 
and  were  diseased  in  all  parts.  The  living  shoots  on  the  trunks  are 
not  from  inserted  buds.  Photos.  July  1,  1889,  Hubbardston,  Mich. 
XV.  Year  1889.  Same  series  as  XIII  and  XIV.  All  parts  of  both  trees  dis- 
eased. In  Fig.  1  the  healthy-looking  part  of  the  tree  is  the  shoot  which 
grew  from  the  inserted  bud.  In  Fig.  2  the  inserted  bud  was  dead.  Time, 
23  months  from  date  of  inoculation.  Photos.  July  1, 1889,  Hubbardston, 
Mich.  The  trees  represented  on  these  three  plates  were  grown  by 
Thos.  J.  Shallcross,  Locust  Grove,  Md.,  in  1887.  They  were  budded 
August  3,  1887 ;  were  moved  in  the  spring  of  1888  to  Michigan,  and 
set  at  Hubbardston  on  April  24  of  that  year.  They  showed  no  symp- 
toms of  disease  until  after  July,  1888. 

XVI,  XVII.  Year  1889.  Healthy  unbudded  trees  for  comparison  with  those  shown 
on  Plates  XIII  to  XV.  Trees  of  same  age,  i.  e.,  27  months,  from  same 
nursery,  removed  at  same  time,  and  set  in  same  field.  Reduction  the 
same.  Photos.  July  1,  1889,  Hubbardston,  Mich. 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATES.  57 

XVIII.  Year  1890.  From  same  series  as  XIII  to  XV,  but  13  months  later. 
Trees  diseased  by  yellows  in  all  parts  and  very  sickly.  Fig.  1 
shows  the  best  one  of  the  210  inoculated  trees.  Fig.  2  nearly  dead. 
Time  3  years  from  inoculation.  Trees  41  months  old.  Photos.  July 
30, 1890,  Hubbardston,  Mich. 

XIX-XXI.  Year  1890.  Plates  showing  effect  of  inoculations  on  seven  previously 
healthy  trees.  Different  stages  of  the  disease.  Time  3  years.  Some 
entirely  dead  and  others  nearly  so.  Fig.  1,  Plate  XIX,  shows  two  of 
a  row  of  healthy  trees  in  the  background.  The  very  characteristic 
branching  shoot  on  the  base  of  Fig.  2,  Plate  XXI,  did  not  grow  from 
the  inserted  bud  x  but  from  the  seedling  stock  some  distance  above 
it.  Photos.  July  30,  1890,  Hubbardston,  Mich. 

XXII.  Year  1890.  Forty  trees  killed  by  yellows  in  less  than  3  years  from 
date  of  inoculation.  Pulled  and  photographed  in  one  group.  July 
31,  1890,  Hubbardston,  Mich.  Some  died  ia  the  fall  of  1889,  others  in 
the  following  winter,  and  the  small  remainder  in  the  spring  of  1890. 
XXIII,  XXIV.  Year  1890.  Two  unbudded  healthy  trees  of  same  age  for  comparison 
with  Plates  XVIII  to  XXII.  These  figures  represent  average  speci- 
mens of  all  now  living  (86)  of  the  whole  lot  set  for  comparison. 
Some  were  larger  than  those  here  shown  and  others  a  little  smaller. 
These  trees  were  3  years  old  from  the  seed  when  photographed  and 
have  had  only  ordinary  treatment.  Photos.  July  29, 1890,  Hubbards- 
ton, Mich. 

INOCULATION  EXPERIMENT  No.  4. 

XXV.  Year  1890.  Barnard  tree  inoculated  in  the  fall  of  1887  from  a  terminal 
shoot  on  the  healthy  looking  side  of  a  diseased  tree.  Possible  long 
period  of  incubation.  The  top  here  shown  was  derived  from  the 
inserted  bud.  Photo.  January  28,  1891,  Delaware. 

INOCULATION  EXPERIMENT  No.  5. 

XXVI.  Year  1890.  Two  seedling  trees.  In  Fig.  1  the  growth  from  the  inserted 
bud  was  about  10  inches  long,  and  more  than  one-half  of  its  winter 
buds  had  unfolded  into  feeble  sprouts.  Photo.  October  30,  1890. 
In  Fig.  2  the  spring  foliage  had  fallen,  but  the  same  symptoms  were 
manifest.  Photo.  December  13,  1890,  Washington,  D.  C. 

IMMUNITY. 

XXVII.  Peach  on  plum.  Trees  budded  on  Mariana  stock  in  August,  1888, 
set  November  7,  1889.  Photos.  October  18,  1890,  Still  Pond,  Md. 
Fig.  1,  healthy  and  very  thrifty.  The  white  spot  on  the  trunk 
indicates  the  point  of  union  between  the  plum  stock  and  the  peach 
top.  Fig.  2,  tree  badly  stunted  with  yellowish  and  reddish  foliage, 
but  no  symptoms  of  yellows.  The  peach  top  had  overgrown  the 
plum  stock  and  there  was  a  noticeable  swelling  just  above  the  point 
of  union. 

XXVIII.  Resisting  power  of  old  trees.  Budded  peach  tree,  36  years  old,  farm 
of  James  S.  Harris,  Still  Pond,  Md.  The  limb  marked  a?  developed 
symptoms  of  yellows  in  1890.  This  tree  has  stood  in  a  region  of 
diseased  orchards  for  many  years,  but  it  was  somewhat  isolated  and 
well  along  in  years  before  the  disease  appeared.  Photo.  October 
18,  1890.  The  distance  marked  off  on  the  trunk  is  5  feet. 

II. — PEACH  ROSETTE. 

XXIX.  Fig.  1,  budded  peach  tree,  5  years  old,  and  diseased  in  all  parts  by 
the  rosette.  This  tree  was  healthy  in  1890.  It  first  manifested 
symptoms  of  disease  in  the  spring  of  1891,  and  at  the  time  it  was 
photographed  did  not  bear  one  healthy  or  full  size  leaf  or  nor- 


58  PEACH    ROSETTE. 

mal  shoot  axis.  Such  trees  generally  die  in  the  summer  or  autumn 
of  the  same  year  ;  Fig.  2,  healthy  budded  tree  of  same  age  from 
the  same  orchard.  It  might  have  been  only  20  feet  distant.  Photos.  ' 
June  3, 1891,  Griffin,  Ga.  Trees  about  14  feet  high.  Part  of  the  left 
side  of  each  photo  is  omitted  to  bring  it  within  the  requirements  of 
the  plate. 

XXX.  Terminal  branches  from  a  budded  tree  of  bearing  age.  Fig.  1,  still  per- 
fectly healthy  to  all  outward  appearances.  Fig.  2,  in  first  stages 
of  the  rosette ;  Fig.  3,  com  plete,  typical  rosette ,  All  from  the  same 
tree.  Reduced  to  about  one-seventh  natural  size.  Photos.  July  5, 

1890,  Griffin,  Ga. 

XXXI,  XXXII.  Shoots  from  a  seedling  tree  of  bearing  age  showing  progressive  stages 
of  the  rosette  from  appearance  of  perfect  health  to  complete  dis- 
ease. Fig.  1.,  perfectly  healthy  and  very  thrifty.  Foliage  smooth 
and  green.  Fig.  2,  leaves  commencing  to  roll,  straighten,  and 
become  yellowish ;  Fig.  3,  spring  foliage  worse  diseased  than  in 
Fig.  2,  and  yellowish,  rolled,  and  somewhat  injured  on  the  margin 
by  leaf  fungi.  The  winter  buds  on  the  upper  part  of  the  shoots 
are  unfolding  into  rosettes.  Fig.  4,  rosettes  developing  and  fully 
developed.  Photos.  July  2, 1890.  Tree  found  in  a  thicket  at  Sunny 
Side,  Ga.  Reduced  to  about  one-fourth  natural  size. 

XXXIII.  Fruit  from  diseased  and  healthy  looking  side  of  an  affected  tree. 

Fig.  1  from  a  badly  resetted  branch.  The  foliage  of  this  twig  was 
yellowish,  and  its  buds  had  begun  to  push  into  rosettes  both  above 
and  below  the  fruit,  which  was  yellowish  green  and  had  begun  to 
shrivel  slightly  but  was  not  strikingly  different  from  Fig.  2.  Fig.  2 
healthy  twig  and  green,  half-grown  fruits  from  same  tree*  Photo. 
June,  23, 1891,  Griffin,  Ga. 

INOCULATION  EXPEEIMENT  No.  1. 

XXXIV.  First  results,  year  1890.     Two  of  the  worst  affected  trees.    Time,  4 

months  and  12  days  from  date  of  insertion  of  the  diseased  buds.  In. 
both  figures  the  bits  of  white  paper  indicate  the  location  of  these 
buds.  In  Fig.  1  both  buds  united  with  the  stocks,  but  neither  one 
pushed,  the  nearest  diseased  shoot  being  from  the  stock.  In  Fig.  2 
the  lower  bud  grew  into  x,  while  the  upper  bud  did  not  push.  In 
Fig.  2  the  base  of  the  uppermost  diseased  shoot  was  5  inches 
above  the  uppermost  inserted  bud.  The  left  side  of  each  tree  ap- 
peared to  be  perfectly  healthy.  Inoculations  June  21,  1890.  Photo* 
November  3,  1890,  Griffin,  Ga. 

XXXV*  Year  1891*  Row  of  seedling  trees  inoculated  June  21,  1890.  Photo. 
June  6,  1891,  Griffin,  Ga*  All  diseased  throughout  and  left  one 
drying  up.  The  diseased  buds  were  inserted  near  the  earth  and  the 
seedling  tops  were  not  removed. 

XXXVI.  Year  1891.  Trees  inoculated  June  21, 1890.  Fig.  1,  healthy  seedling, 
two  buds  were  inserted,  but  failed  to  heal  on.  Fig.  2,  seedling  dis- 
eased in  all  parts;  one  or  both  of  the  buds  healed  on.  Photo.  June 
6,  1891,  Griffin,  Ga. 

XXXVII.  Year  1891.  Fig.  1,  several  trees  inoculated  June  21,  1890,  and  now 
diseased  in  all  parts;  Fig.  2,  two  healthy  seedlings  inoculated 
with  healthy  Elberta  buds  about  the  same  date.  Photo.  June  6, 

1891,  Griffin,  Ga. 

XXXVIII.  Year  1891.  Result  of  inoculatiaiw^  Part  I  bird's-eye  view  of  rows  of 
seedlings  diseased  by  the  rosette  as  the  result  of  inoculations  made 
June  21,  1890.  Part  II  bird's>eye  view  of  adjoining  healthy  nursery 
of  Elberta.  Photos.  June  6,  1891,  Griffin,  Ga. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891, 


PI,ATI$  I. 


TBRSIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Vego  Pathology,  1891. 


YEI,I,OWS-— AUTUMN  GROWTH  FROM  WINTER  BUDS. 

Amherst,  Mass. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 

I:*. 


III. 


Fig.  i. 


Fig  2. 


PEACH  SHOOTS. 

i.    Diseased  by  yellows.      2.    Healthy. 
Still  Pond,  Md. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


YE;I,I,OWS— AUTUMN  GROWTHS  FROM  WINTER  BUDS. 

Still  Pond,  Md. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


AND  SUMMER  GROWTHS. 

Very  unusually  tufted. 
South  Haven,  Mich. 


>>^0?  THH  ~V4^ 

[UNIVERSITY; 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PLATE  .T 


^ 
.5 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PI,ATU  Vila. 


YEI,I,OWS— THE  IVAST  STAGS. 

Smyrna,  Del. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  x8gi. 


PIRATE  VHb. 


a 


KIW,ED  IN  3^  YEARS. 

Magnolia,  Del. 


TJHIVBESITY 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891 


VIH. 


ssvoasosat 


YEW«OWS — RESULT  OF  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  i,  year  1888. 


UHIVBESIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


IX. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


off  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  i,  year  1889. 


01  TH1 

ITFIVBRSITT 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891 


PI,ATE  XL 


TJHJVBESIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Vego  Pathology,  1891. 


PIRATE  XII 


5. 


o*  INOCDI^TIONS. 

Experiment  i,  year  1890. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PI.ATE  XII 


Boll,  i,  DIv.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891 


PIATE  XIV. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg,  Pathology,  1891. 


PI.ATK  XV. 


TOT 

tJlSUVBRSITT 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


YEWJWS— EXPERIMENT  2,  YEAR  1889. 

Healthy  tree  for  comparison.    See  Plates  XIII-XV. 


sj&Q?  TB3*    *    X^ 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XVIII. 


Ym,w>ws— RESUI/T  OF  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  2,  year  1890. 


XIX. 


YELLOWS— RESULT  OF  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  2,  year  1890. 


UFI7ERSIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


YEU,OWS— RESUI/T  OF  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  2,  year  1890. 


Bull,  i,  Div,  Veg.  Pathology,  1*91 


PLATE      XXI. 


YELLOWS — RESULT  OF  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  2,  year  1890. 


UITI7EESIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XXII. 


YBI,I,OWS— RESUI/T  OF  INOCULATIONS. 

Experiment  2,  year  1890. 


TJ1UVSRSITT 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891- 


PLATE  XXIII. 


YEUX>WS— EXPERIMENT  2,  YEAR  1890. 

Healthy  tree  for  comparison. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XXIV. 


YEI<I,OWS— EXPERIMENT  2,  YEAR   1890. 
Healthy  tree  for  comparison. 


UIUVEESIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div..Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PLATE  XXV. 


YELLOWS — RESULT  OF  INOCULATION — TREK  STILL  HEALTHY. 

Experiment  4,  year  1891. 


Bull.  i.  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PI, ATE  XXVI, 


YBUX>WS— RESULT  OP  INOCUI.ATIONS. 

Experiment  5,  year  1890. 


TJHI7ERSIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XXVII. 


OfXHB      J^ 

tflUVISBSITYj 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XXVIII. 


PEACH  TREE— 36  YEARS  Ow>. 

(Free  from  yellows  until  1890.) 
Still  Pond,  Md. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XXIX. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


ROSETTE— BUDDED  TREE. 

A  healthy  branch  and  two  stages  of  the  disease. 
Griffin,  Ga. 


Bull,  i,  Div,  VCR.  Pathology,  1891 


PI<ATE)  XXXI. 


ROSETTE-— SEEDUNG  TREE. 

Fig.  i.    Healthy       Fig.  2.    Slightly  diseased. 
Sunny  Side,  Ga. 


Of  THB 

JJ7IESITY] 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PI.ATE  xxxn. 


I 


UH1VBESIT7 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891 


PI,ATE  XXXIII. 


if; 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


XXXIV. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891 


XXXV. 


; :, 


UHIVBRSJT7 


Bull.  1,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


PI.ATB  XXXVI. 


F    a 
S 

"    § 


UKJ7BESIT7 


Bull,  i,  Biv.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891 


XXXVII. 


Bull,  i,  Div.  Veg.  Pathology,  1891. 


xxxvm. 


^ 


m 


>.A 


INDEX    OF    NAMES. 


Abbe,  Prof.  Cleveland,  22.  Jackson,  G.  D. ,  27. 

Barnard,  D.  P.,  21.  Johnson  and  Stokes,  23. 

Barnard,  Norris.,  16  Kerr,  J.  W.,  23, 38. 

Berckmans,  P.  J. ,  52.  Maxwell,  Dr.  W.  S. ,  17, 41. 

Brothers,  William,  24.  Nicholson,  John  A., 28. 

Brown,  William  P.,  23.  Nicholson,  R.  G.,  21. 

Churchill,  Mr. ,  18.  (Etter,  Rudolph,  52. 

Collier,  Dr.  Peter,  18.  Pierce,  Newton  BM  11. 

Davis,  George,  28, 29.  Redding,  Col.  R.  J.,  52. 

Fryer,  R.  C.,  49.  Shallcross,  Thomas  J.,  18, 56. 

Gildersleve,  George,  27.  Smith,  T.  A.,  39. 

Goff,  Prof.  E.  S.,  18.  Speth,  Gustave,  52. 

Green ,  James  W. ,  23, 25, 40.  Swingle,  W.  T. ,  51. 

Harper,  F.  H. ,  29, 40.  Wells,  T.  C.,  49. 

Harris,  James  S. ,  16, 43, 57.  Willet,  Prof.  J.  E. ,  52. 

Hasselkus,  H.  W. ,  52.  Wilson,  J.  Frank,  30 

Husted,  J.  D. ,  47, 49, 52.  Wright,  Charles,  23. 

69 


INDEX 


Page. 
jEgeria  exitiosa : 

Most  troublesome  on  sandy  land 34 

Yellows  not  due  to 34 

Algeria,  exemption  from  yellows  in 11 

Amherst,  Massachusetts,  yellows  at 14 

Aphides,  young  trees  killed  by 40, 41 

Arkansas,  probable  occurrence  of  yellows  ill 12 

Australasia,  fruit  fly  in 42 

Bees,  popular  belief  that  yellows  is  spread  by 24 

Black  peach  aphis 40, 41 

Blossoms : 

Trees  probably  not  affected  through 24,44 

Yellows  causes  premature  unfolding  of 14,44,47 

Borers : 

Peaches  prematured  by 47 

Yellows  not  due  to 34 

Botan  plum,  rosette  in _„.  45 

Bud  inoculation : 

Manner  of.... T.r 16 

Kosette  induced  by 50,51 

Yellows  induced  by 16,18,23 

Buds: 

Effect  of  June  budding  on 14 

Premature  unfolding  in  yellows 12, 14, 16, 20, 24 

California : 

Danger  of  introducing  yellows  into 12 

Exemption  from  yellows 11 

Caroline  County,  Maryland : 

Buds  from  healthy  orchards  in 39 

Peach  borer  in 34 

Peach  pits  from 23 

Chesapeake  and  Delaware  peninsula,  yellows  on 11, 15 

Connecticut,  observation  on  yellows  in 15 

Contagious  nature  of  rosette 54 

Contagious  nature  of  yellows 16 

Control  trees 17,18,21,50,52 

Cumberland  plum,  rosette  in 45 

Delaware  and  Chesapeake  peninsula,  yellows  on 11, 15 

Delaware,  yellows  in 11,14,15,24,25,27 

Denton,  Maryland,  experiment  at 38 

Department  of  Agriculture,  inoculation  experiments  on  grounds  of 17, 23 

Dormant  buds: 

Effect  of  June  budding  on 14 

Effect  of  rosette  on 40 

Effect  of  yellows  on 14 

61 


62  INDEX. 

Page. 

Dover,  Delaware,  excisions  at 24 

Dry  seasons  conducive  to  yellows 33 

Excisions - 24 

Conclusions  from 36 

Retarding  influence  of , 37 

Successful  for  a  time ___ 28,30 

Experiments  with  rosette,  conclusions  from „ 54 

Experiments  with  yellows,  conclusions  from , 43 

Flowers,  yellows  may  cause  premature  unfolding  of : 14, 44 

Foliage,  very  early  fall  of,  in  rosette 47 

France,  exemption  from  yellows ...,,., 11 

Frosts,  relations  to  yellows ,,, 39 

Fruit,  premature,  in  yellows 12 

Fruit  flies.., , 42 

Geneva,  New  York,  inoculation  experiment  at , 18 

Georgia : 

Occasional  double  growth  of  peach  trees  in 32 

Peach  rosette  in 45,49,54 

Peach  yellows  in 45, 47 

Griffin,  Georgia,  rosette  at 45,49 

Gummosis  in  rosette , 48 

Hubbardston,  Michigan : 

Inoculation  experiment  at..., 19 

Peach  trees,  why  set  at...... 19 

Immunity : 

Excisions  did  not  secure 37 

Observations  and  experiments  on , .  -  „ .  38 

Experiment  la 40 

Experiment  1& , , . . .  40 

Experiment  Ic , ., 41 

Injuries,  yellows  not  due  to , , , 34 

Inoculations : 

Rosette  spread  by 49 

Yellows  spread  by 16,18,23 

Italy,  yellows  not  observed  in 11 

Japan,  peach  codlin  moth  in 42 

Japanese  plums,  rosette  in 45 

June  budding,  effects  of 14 

June  drop 48 

Kansas,  rosette  in 49 

Kelsey  plum,  rosette  in 45 

Kent  County,  Maryland,  inoculation  experiments  in 16, 18, 21 

Leipsic,  Delaware,  excisions  at 28 

Locust  Grove,  Maryland,  inoculation  experiment  at 18 

Magnolia,  Delaware: 

Diseased  buds  from 23 

Excisions  at 25 

Peach  on  plum  at 40 

Manhattan,  Kansas,  rosette  at 49 

Mariana  plum,  rosette  not  observed  in 45 

Mariana  plum  stocks,  peaches  budded  on 38, 52 

Maryland,  yellows  in 11,14,15,28,29 

Mediterranean  countries : 

Exemption  from  yellows 11 

Fruit  fly  in 42 


INDEX.  63 

Page. 

Michigan,  observation  on  yellows  in 15 

Mildew  on  peach  trees 21 

New  Jersey,  observation  on  yellows  in 15 

New  York: 

Observation  on  yellows  in „ ....,..,.  15 

Yellows  destructive  in  western  part  of '. ,  r 13 

New  Zealand,  obscure  peach  disease  in „ , T  r . , 42 

Nurserymen,  methods  of , , 38 

Nursery  stock,  yellows  may  be  carried  in r , 12,20 

Old  trees,  hardier  than  young  ones 43 

Orchards  badly  diseased  by  yellows 15, 25, 29, 40, 41 

Pacific  coast,  danger  of  introducing  yellows  on  12 

Parasites,  danger  of  introduction  with  peach  trees 42 

Puccinia  pruni 53 

Peach  borer,  yellows  not  due  to ..., 34 

Peach  trees,  method  s  of  nurserymen 38 

Peach  yellows  inoculations : 

Experiment  1 ,.„ 16 

Experiment  2 18 

Experiments  3  and  4 21 

Experiment  5 „ 23 

Peach : 

Abnormal  in  yellows , , 12 

Description  of  diseased  and  healthy 12 

Normal  habit  of  growth , 14 

Plum  stocks  for 38,52 

Symptoms  in,  due  to  rosette 45 

Symptoms  in,  due  to  yellows 12, 33 

Peaches,  varieties  of: 

Alexander 47 

Beers' Smock 24,25,26,31,39,40 

Christiana 29, 32, 34 

Crawford's  Early , , 39,41,43 

Crawford's  Late 26, 39, 40, 41 

Elberta , 48,52 

Mountain  Rose 28,39,40,41 

OldMixon 26,30,32,34,35,36,39,40 

Reeves'  Favorite 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 

Smock 27,29 

Stump  the  World , 26,27 

Wilkins'  Cling 26 

Plum,  rosette  also  affects 45 

Plum  stocks  for  peach 38,52 

Plum  stocks,  a  disadvantage  of 41 

Pollen,  yellows  probably  not  spread  by 24, 44 

Pomona,  Georgia 52 

Premature  fruit,  great  quantities  in  Maryland  and  Delaware 12 

Premature  growth  of  buds  in  yellows 12, 13, 14 

Premature  peaches : 

Absent  in  rosette 47,54 

Appearance  of,  in  yellows „ 12, 33 

Borers  induce  one  sort  of 47 

Taste  of,  when  due  to  yellows 33 

Premature  pits,  healthy  seedlings  from 17 

Pruning,  yellows  not  known  to  be  communicated  by 22 


64  INDEX. 

Page. 

Primus  Chicasa,  rosette  in... , ,-..-.. , „ ...  45 

Pruuus  domestica T, . . .. 45 

Rainfall,  yellows  not  worse  when  excessive . , , .  33 

Red  spotting  of  fruit,  a  symptom  in  yellows 12, 13,  33 

Rising  Sun,  Delaware,  excisions,  near...T  ,„ 27 

Rosette : 

Cases  by  years  at  Vineyard,  Georgia.  ..„..,...., „ ,,  50 

Conclusions  respecting  nature  of . , 54 

Dangerous  nature  of , , , 49,54 

Flowers  and  fruits  in  ..„,....  T T , 47 

First  appearance  and  present  distribution  of , 48 

Foliage  in ,  „ „ 46 

Gum-pockets  in , 48 

Healthy-looking  buds  did  not  produce , . .  52 

How  different  from  yellows T. . , . . „  54 

How  induced .  T -?---- TT T .  - . .  49 

Plants  attacked  by 45 

Premature  fruit  absent  m 47,54 

Rapid  progress  in  plants  attacked T .... ...r  ..,.45, 49, 54 

Roots  and  rootlets  in „ „ ^---  ,rr ...  48 

Shoot-axes  in ....„., .--rr- .  46 

Small  amount  of  diseased  tissue  required  to  produce  T T . .  r , ,  51 

Symptoms  of. „., „ ,. 45 

Sassafras  River  : 

Peach  on  plum  at  mouth  of .  r , , T . .  r . . . . , „ T .  41 

Peach  yellows  destructive  in  vicinity  of , 41 

Scolytus  rugulosus,  resetted  trees  attacked  by..... 47 

Seaford,  Delaware : 

Healthy  old  orchards  atr , .  39 

Peach  pits  from , 23 

Seedlings : 

Healthy  ones  from  premature  peaches 17 

Subject  to  yellows 38 

Shiloh,  Georgia,  rosette  at 49 

Shriveled  fruits  in  rosette 47,54 

Sicily,  exemption  from  yellows 11 

Smock  seedlings  for  inoculation 16 

Sprouts  due  to  yellows 13 

Still  Pond,  Maryland : 

Excisions  at 28,29 

Inoculation  experiment  at 16 

Peach  on  plum  at 40 

Sussex  County,  Delaware : 

Peach  borer  in 34 

Peach  pits  from 23 

Symptoms  of  rosette 45 

Symptoms  of  yellows ' 12 

Tennessee  pits...* 18,23 

Tephritis,  danger  of  introduction  of 42 

Terminal  branches : 

Buds  for  inoculation  from 22,52 

Diseased  growths  from 14,  46 

Texas,  probable  occurrence  of  yellows,  in  northeast  part  of 12 

Turkestan,  peach  stones  from 42 


INDEX.  65 

Page. 

United  States,  yellows  native  in  eastern  part  of 11 

Varieties  (see  Peaches). 

Vineyard,  Georgia,  inoculation  experiments  at 49,52 

Virginia,  yellows  in........... 11 

Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  inoculation  experiments  in 17,22,23 

Wet  seasons,  yellows  not  worse  in 33 

Wheat,  effect  of  in  peach  orchard 21 

Wild  Goose  plum,  rosette  in 45 

Winter  buds,  premature  growth  from  (see  also  Excisions) 12, 13 

Winter  freezing,  not  the  cause  of  yellows • 39 

Yellows: 

Annual  increase  of  cases 15 

Bud  inoculation  not  only  method  of  spread 42,44 

Chronic  nature  of. « 15 

Conclusions  from  experiments  .. — -....  43 

Destructive  nature  of. 11,15 

Due  in  part  to  careless  selection  of  buds 42 

Duration  of  affected  trees . — 15 

First  symptoms  of 12,24 

Green  foliage,  usually  found  in  first  stage  of 13, 24, 25, 28, 29 

Gradual  progress  of 13,24 

Healthy  looking  buds  may  produce ......18,23,44 

How  best  to  deal  with 12,43 

How  different  from  rosette 54 

Immunity,  by  careful  selection  of  buds  and  stocks 38 

Influence  of  locality  on 38 

Injuries  not  the  cause  of 34 

Inoculations 16 

Parts  first  affected 12,24 

Period  of  incubation  in 44 

Reference  to  losses  occasioned  by 11, 15, 18, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 40, 41, 43 

Severe  winters  do  not  cause 39 

Slow  progress  of,  in  affected  trees 15, 18,21,24,37,56 

Small  amount  of  diseased  material  necessary  to  produce 18,21,44 

Symptoms  of  (see  also  Excisions) 12 

Symptoms  of,  in  early  spring 14,44 

Trees  affected  before  symptoms  appear 20,44 

Trees  seldom  or  never  recover 15 

Virulent  nature  of 18,20 

Where  native 11 

1609— Bull.  1 5 


YC  6C22) 


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